The Origins of Witchcraft

The Origins of Witchcraft

Everyone has heard about the witch-hunts and persecution of witches which occurred mostly between the 14^th and 17^th centuries, a period known as the The Early Modern period, but where does our modern perception of witchcraft come from? In fact, where did our 14^th century predecessors get their concept of witchcraft? In other words, where did witchcraft originate and how has it evolved?

The word 'witch' originates from the Anglo-Saxon word 'wicca', which was derived from the word 'wicce' meaning wise. The word 'witch' also means to 'twist' or 'bend', and relates to psychogenesis or telekinesis. The word 'witch' dates back thousands of years, to when people worshipped Mother Earth or Nature as goddesses. Women were revered as creatures of new life. Witchcraft means 'the craft of the wise' and is the oldest religion in the world, remaining in existence through the oral transfer of knowledge from one generation to the next. It was primarily practiced by women as they stayed at home while the men worked. Witchcraft incompassed not ony magic - home medicines and remedies including potions, herbs, stones, oils, and massages were important factors.

Earth Mother by Shere Crossman (Original)

Essentially, witchcraft was created along with human civilization due to fear of the unknown, and because of the role magic was believed to play in making day-to-day life easier. Witches were the mediators between humans and mysterious super powers, such as spirits and angels. When a witch succeeded in solving someone's apparently mysterious problem, it was labelled magic: a process which couldn't be easily explained using logical analysis. Witchcraft was practiced in almost every society and culture across the world, although beliefs and traditions differed from place to place. According to scholars, it predates the majority of well-known religions and goes back to the Paleolithic period.

Archaeological discoveries have shown us how people worshipped the hunter god and fertility goddess during this period. The presence of cave paintings, estimated to be 30,000 years old, which protray a man with the head of a stag, along with another showing a pregnant woman standing in a circle made up of eleven other people, proves that witchcraft is one of the oldest religions in the world. These relics are evidence that witchcraft predates Christianity by thousands of years.

 Dancing Witch Doctor Cave Painting Copy by Abbe' Breuil (Original)

While it was more often practiced by women, men were also witches, although this was less common. Witches were considered highly valuable, providing vital services for the health of the family. They healed the sick and suffering and were respected for how wise they were.  Witches had a range of different uses, being capable of inducing hypnosis, making childbirth and other health problems pain free; they could use telepathy, clairvoyance, intuition, dowsing, crystals, and trance as means of communicating with the dead. At this point, religion and magic were inseparable. However, as people flocked to witches with the health problems, the Christian Church began to feel threatened. 

 

The Wise Woman from Catkin (Original)

While witches and their craft were once respected, it has evolved massively since its creation. As we come to the growth of Christianity, witchcraft changed to suit this new religion, which portrayed the practice of magic as evil and those practicing it as heathens and heretics. Many of the ideas incorporated into the practise of witchcraft were taken from popular folklore, with the development of these beliefs being the responsibility of the Christian intellects of the time, before being filtered back to the common people through indirect means.

When looking at the old beliefs in witchcraft, one of the common elements is involvement with the Devil and demons. During the Middle Ages, the Devil was usually known as Satan, meaning 'the adversary'. Satan did not play a particularly big role in the Old Testament, but he was far more apparent in the New Testament, where he tempted those with a belief in God, trying to get them to turn their backs on their religion. In the New Testament, the war between the Kingdom of God and the Kingdom of Satan began, each trying to gain control of the souls of mortal men.

You may wonder what this has to do with the evolution of witchcraft and that Christianity has little to do with witchcraft.  However, the growth of Christianity had a great deal to do with the later views on witchcraft. As Christianity spread, it encontered other beliefs and other religions, all of which those following Christianity would try to convert to the 'one true faith.' Those seen to be denying the word of God and to be leading souls away from God were seen to be a part of the Kingdom of Satan.

Before long, Christianity began to demonize the gods belonging to other religions, especially those which had converted to Christianity. Pagan deities were some of the most often used to describe the Devil, along with Roman and Celtic deities. People were taught to fear and hate these deities, with fertility gods most often being recognised as demonic. The Greek deity Pan and the Celtic Cernunnos gave the Christian Devil his goat-like appearance, with the Roman Diana adding the sometimes described woman''s breasts to his description. In the confessions of accused witches, these details were often described, although they were probably prompted by the inquisitor.

 The Persecution of Witches (Original)

In the 12^th and 13^th centuries, demons were creatures of spirit – much like angels, these were the fallen angels. If a demon were to be visible, its body was said to be made from the vapours of the earth, with this control of the air later becoming an imporant theory for the flight of witches.

The Christian religion maintained that only God could cause a miracle. Any claim that the Devil could control creation or free will was considered heretical, and any 'miraculous transformations' were considered to be an illusion, with illusion being one of the Devil's supposed powers over the material world. Where the Devil was considered to have power over the material world, God was believed to provide humans with free will. So, if you were seen as being possessed by demons, it was believed that it was through your own choice. According to Malleus Maleficarum, the Devil could influence a person's choices through bibery and tricks. This meant that accused witches maintained their moral responsibility, especially is a pact with the Devil had been made.

This brings us to another important element in accepted witch traditions. A pact with the Devil meant that not only did you practise harmful magic, you were also considered to be a Devil worshipper. This idea was developed over many centuries, with the earliest documentation of such pacts being by St. Augustine, although the belief didn't become widespread until the descriptions were translated into Latin during the 9^th century. It was, by this point in time, believed that all magic practisioners received their powers from pacts with the Devil, although not all Devil worshippers were granted magical powers. A pact with the Devil was seen as some kind of legal contract with the Devil promising a reward in exchange for the witch's immortal soul. This reward may be a promise of wealth, power, sexual indulgence, or happiness in the afterlife. In some instances the witch would be bestowed with magical powers.

A portrayal of Devil worship and cannibalism committed by witches (Original)

The practice of magic increased in the 12^th and 13^th centuries with the transaltions of Greek and Islamic texts. One popular magical practice was necromancy, or communication with the dead, where demons would be apparently summoned so they could be trapped, meaning the witch could learn from their hidden knowledge. As the practice of magic became more common, so did condemnation of these practices, with demonologists stating that while necromancers may not mean to worship the Devil, their communications with demons must come with a price. They concluded that the witch must need to offer some form of bait for the demon, or do some service for the Devil in exchange for the demons knowledge. This meant that even if the practisioner didn't intend to worship the Devil, anything considered the practice of magic was condemned as evil.

This was not the first condemnation of magic, but a pact with the Devil was an imporant addition to witchcraft traditions, making the label of witch applicable to peasants who practiced magic with little or no understanding of the implications of their actions – a pact with the Devil, whether it was was intentional or not. This connection between magic and heresy was then used to condemn other so called heretics, including those found to be involved in secret, group worship and abnormal, inhumane behaviour. Witchcraft became a sort of religious mockery of Christianity, which was best expressed during the witches' sabbath, the next element in the concept of witchcraft.

At this point there was a shift of focus from the upper-class, educated, male magician to the poor, unknowledgable, female witch. There was a corresponding change in the attributes of the pact, from equal partnership where the magicial could fight for the advantage, to a role of subservience, where the witch submitted voluntarily. This was pointed out by King James VI of Scotland, when he said, ''Witches are servants only, and slaves to the Devil; but the Necromancers are his masters and commanders.''

A gathering of witches was known as the sabbath and was a place for those Devil worshippers to debase themselves, taking part in sexual activities with demons, cannibalism and the murder of innocent infants. In some parts of Europe, including France, Spain and Italy, witches were believed to take part in parodies of the Catholic Mass. When all of these activities were connected they provided fulfilled Christians worst fears. This society of so-called witch lore may have been invented by monks during the 12^th and 13^th centuries as propaganda in the war against other beliefs, such as those held by the Waldensians and Cathars, before being applied to other heretics. These intense accusations became a huge burden for accused witches as knowledge of heretical practices grew.

Belief in the sabbath was not universal, although it was widespread and an important addition to those who hunted witches. The assumption that witches gathered to worship the Devil led to many endless hunts for those connected to the accused witches, and was probably a contributing factor in the scale of the exhaustive searches.

Coven in Flight (Original)

Another belief that was often included in witch lore was the claim that witches were capable of flight. One way of doing this was through the Devil's material control over the air, which could propel a witch for great distances through the air. Another theory was that the Devil used his power of illusion, making the witch believe that they had flown. This second idea was also used in claims that the sabbath itself was an illusion. Regardless, flight was used to explain how witches were able to attend sabbaths which were believed to be held in remote areas. Origins of this concept may go back to pagan beliefs which were still followed by many peasants. One of these beliefs held that women could transform into strigae, or abhorrent screeching owls. Another belief was of the Dianic 'wild hunt, when a witch was said to ride through the countryside on the backs of various beasts.

Metamorphosis was another element in Early Modern witch lore. It was said that a witch was capable of transforming themselves or others into animals, with a particular favourite being the wolf. While this too was supposedly another of the Devil's illusion, it was a common assumption. To us, these beliefs may seem far-fetched but, at the time, they seemed like rational explanations. These beliefs were often challenged, although no one dared to deny the central theme of the Devil, which held the entire movement in one piece.

So, when looking at the origins of witchcraft, one has to understand that it had been present in society since the dawn of time, with witches being considered wise and important. However, with the growth of Christianity, fear of witches and the practice of magic was instilled into the public, pushing them to convert from their life-long religion to the 'one true faith', Christianity. What followed was the accusation and murder of many innocents who had often committed no crime or wrong doing.

Fortunately, with modern witchcraft, respect for this practice has once again grown and is now followed by many people in the modern age, without the fear of persecution. It attracts people from all walks of life, bringing them together in an understanding of the life, nature, evolution and mysteries of the universe through witchcraft. Unlike other religions, witchcraft allows a huge amount of freedom, with the only real rules being that you should harm none unless you wish it to be returned to you three times three, nor should nature be misused the generosity of nature by distrupting its balance. 

Next time: We will take a closer look at the persecution of witches during the Salem Witch Trials.

The Origins of Fairies

Now in the olden days of King Arthur,
Of whom the Britons speak with great honour,
All this wide land was land of faery.
The elf-queen, with her jolly company,
Danced oftentimes on many a green mead;
This was the old opinion, as I read.
I speak of many hundred years ago;
But now no man can see the elves, you know.

(From The Wife of Bath's Tale by Geoffrey Chaucer)

The origin of fairies is one of the most debated questions in regards to folklore with their roots being traced back in time to nature spirits, Pagan gods and goddesses, elementals and the dead, amongst other things.  The Welsh, who worshipped the Mother Goddess, referred to fairies as The Mothers and fairyland was known as The Land of Women, with fairies often depicted as women.  These 'little people' can be perceived as both good and bad, malevolent and giving, capable of assisting us and warring against us.  Symbologist, J. E. Cirlot noted that they fulfill humble tasks, yet possess extraordinary powers.  Throughout their history they have been connected with the devil and have been believed to serve witches as familiars.  They have been said to steal children, leaving changelings in their place.  They can cause illness but can also prevent it.  As Richard Kieckhefer wrote, Fairies have good and evil sides, and while they can represent primal paganism they can be said to hold the Christian faith.  But how did these beings come into existence as we perceive them today - as the tooth fairy, Tinkerbell and the fairy godmother?

The belief in fairies actually goes back to the dawn of time and is evident across the world.  Parallels in traditions can be seen in cultures as far apart as Africa, Australia and Britain and can be traced to both written and oral traditions.  From the Sanskrit gandhana - semidivine celestial musicians - to the nymphs of the Greeks, the jinni of Arabian myth to other characters of the Samoans, Arctic and other indigenous Americans.  The word fairy is derived from the Latin fata, or fate, which refers to the three women who spin and control the threads of life.  We also have the English term fays, meaning enchanted or bewitched.  The Old French word faerie has also been linked to the modern word fairy.

Those researching fairies often turn to Medieval texts, occasionally using place names as evidence of the history of fairies.  However, it is questionable that these texts and place names are describing fairies at all.
Fairy traditions within literature really began with Chaucer and Gower in the 1380s.  They are described here as a combination of the frightening and the amusing, as an already vanishing race.  Before this, the fairy didn't really exist - at least not as we know them today.  So called 'earlier accounts' tell us of supernatural beings that vary from text to text, with their characteristics or dwelling place found within their name, for example, the Barrow Revellers and the Green Children of Woolpit.  There is nothing within these texts to suggest that these beings are of the same 'species'.  The fairy tradition grew to encompass sprites, boggarts, pixies, banshees, brownies, hobgoblins, elementals, trolls, elves and many other creatures.

A 1639 depiction of Puck

In fact, there are many different concepts which were once unrelated that have, in modern times, come together to define what we now call the fairy.  Take, for example, the word elf, which Chaucer made into the equivalent of the word fairy.  The word elf can be linked to the Old English aelf, the Anglo-Saxon dryades and the Scandinavian Vanir.  In later literature, elf has been used to translate the Romance fadas.  Robert of Gloucester took a different approach, relating elves to the spiritual beings of the sky.
Elves are often found within literature but are absent from the land and, along with the fairy, you will not find them in English place names until the 18th century.  You do, however, find the puca, an occupant of barrows, wells and pits.  The puca was later linked to Puck, or Robin Goodfellow and could also be associated with the Will o'-the-Wisp and Friar Rush.  These were usually night-walking spirits which mislead men into unfortunate circumstances, playing tricks and causing mischief on the unwary.  However, in the earliest instances, a puck, pouke or pook was another name for the devil.
When looking at northern England, we find that aelf is commonly used, but puca is absent.  In this area elf is kept as the normal word for these beings in modern times, but the Romance fairy has been almost completely rejected.  This is believed to be through the influence of Scandinavian beliefs, with the aelf referring to a dwarf, or dweorg.  When looking at Scandinavian tradition in connection with the fairy, we find the words nanus and pygmaeus, which refers to a short human being.

There are many theories which have been proposed for the origin of faires:

• Unbaptized souls which are caught in limbo because they are not good enough to go to heaven, nor bad enough to go to hell.
• The Book of Enoch makes fairies fallen angels - the angels which were loyal to Satan.  The legend tells us that they were cast out of heaven with Satan but, on the journey to hell, God stopped them mid-flight, condemning them to remain where they were.  Some stopped in the air, some on the earth and some in the rivers and seas.  This belief can be found in Scotland, Ireland and Scandinavia.  A similar account to this is that when God stopped these angels, those still in heaven remained angels, those in hell became devils and those in between became fairies.
• The Irish tales of the Tuatha De Danaan refer to these beings as fairies, but they were once worshipped as gods and goddesses.
• Certain traditions tell us that fairies were demons.  This belief became popular with the start of Puritanism, with the once friendly hobgoblin becoming a wicked goblin.  Any dealings with fairies was considered a form of witchcraft in this era and was punished as such.
• Some say they are native spirits which live in all things and in all places on Earth.  These can be described as elementals, such as gnomes and sylphs, as described by Paracelsus  Some popular folklore accounts describe fairies as 'spirits of the air'.
• Others believe that fairies are simply tiny human beings.  There is evidence in parts of Europe and the British Isles that, in the Neolithic and Bronze Ages, there were populations of small-structured races.  The Irish know these races as the Tuatha De Danaan and believe them to dwell in barrows, hills and mounds.  These people are believed to have been hard-working but shy and, as the lands were invaded by bigger, stronger people, they hid in the woodland to live with nature.
• The dead have sometimes been linked with fairies, with the Irish banshee at times being described as a ghost.  The northern English Cauld Lad of Hylton tells us of a murdered boy who is described as a household sprite, like a brownie.  Another tale describes a man who was caught by the fairies and, everytime he looked at one, he saw one of his dead neighbours.
• J. M. Barrie's 1902 book The Little White Bird tells us: When the first baby laughed for the first time, his laugh broke into a million pieces, and they all went skipping about.  That was the beginning of fairies.

 There are many sources for these beliefs, with common themes being found in the Celtic nations describing a race of small people who were driven into hiding by humans.  They were seen as another race or as spirits which were believed to live in the Otherworld, or Tir na nOg.  With the coming of Christianity fairies lived on and were reputed by the Church to be 'evil beings'.

So, when looking at the origins of modern fairies, one needs to look to the time of Richard II, where a combination of poets from both England and France took their old traditions and formed the tricksters like Robin Goodfellow, the familiar spirits of cunning men and the domestic spirits like the Brownie and Hobgoblin.  This, in turn, changed the native traditions of the sidhe of Ireland and the Highlands, adding new characteristics such as small size into people's beliefs of fairies.

By the 1800s, fairy traditions had changed so much that it became difficult to discern what some beings - the Anglo-Saxon grims, scucca, thyrs and the rural Church Grims, Black Shucks and Holothrusts - were like to start with.  The modern fairy was born, masking a full understanding of the older supernatural encounters which have been included in the modern perception of these little people.

Next time I plan to tell you about some of the things which were said to please the fairies and about what was said to happen if the fairies were displeased.  I also was to include some of things believed to be sacred to the fairies how these things effect modern man in places like Ireland.
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