Mythology, Legend, and Folklore of the Sky - Part Four - The Weather

                    Know the enemy, know yourself;
                    your victory will never be endangered.
                    Know the ground, know the weather,
                    your victory will then be total.
                                Sun Tzu, The Art of War, c. 400-320 b.c.

Wherever you are in the world, the weather is always a topic of conversation.  In modern times we have a deeper understanding of the what and the why of weather phenomena and can, with some degree of accuracy, predict what is to come.  However, ancient cultures didn't have the same scientific approach to the weather that we have today.  Instead they created folktales and legends, mythological creatures and gods to explain the reasons behind the winds, the rain, storms, snow and the more extreme weather events that we still experience today.

Original

There are so many gods and goddesses associated with the weather.  It would be impossible to put them all into this post, so I'll just give you a few of the tales found in mythology and legend here.  Many more gods and goddess can be found here.

The Weather in Mythology and Legend

In mythology, legend and folklore there are an uncountable number of deities which have been attributed to the weather.  The ancient Greeks had no fewer than 40 gods and goddesses related to the weather and the climate and they are not the only culture to have a colourful collection of sky deities.

The Bird Whose Wings Made Wind - A North American Indian Tale

The Bird Whose Wings Made WInd

by Duke Sine

     An Indian family resided on the sea-shore. They had two sons, the oldest of whom was married and had a family of small children. They lived principally by fishing, and their favourite food was eels.
     Now it came to pass at a certain time that the weather was so stormy they could not fish. The wind blew fiercely night and day, and they were greatly reduced by hunger. Finally the old father told his boys to walk along the shore, and perhaps they might find a fish that had floated ashore, as   sometimes happened.
     So one of the young men started off to try his luck in this line; when he reached a point where the wind blew so fiercely that he could hardly stand against it, he saw the cause of all the trouble. At the end of the point there was a ledge of rocks, called Rocky Point, extending far out; at low water the rocks were separated from one another by the shallow water, but were nearly all covered when the tide was in. On the farthest rock a large bird, the storm-king, was standing, flapping his wings and    causing all the trouble by the wind he raised. The Indian planned to outwit him.
     He called to the big bird, and addressing him as "my grandfather," said, "Are you cold?" He answered, "No." The man replied, "You are cold; let me carry you ashore on my back." "Do so," was the answer. So the man waded over to the rock on which the bird was sitting, took him on his back, and carefully carried him from rock to rock, wading over the intervening spaces of shoal water. In going down the last rock, he stumbled on purpose, but pretended that it was an accident; and the poor old bird fell and broke one of his wings. The man seemed very sorry, and immediately proceeded to set the bone and bind up the wing. He then directed the old fellow to keep quiet and not move his wings until the wounded one healed. He now inquired if it pained him much, and was told that it did not. "Remain there and I will visit you again soon, and bring you some food."
     He now returned home, and found that the wind had all died away; there was a dead calm, so that before long they were supplied with a great abundance of food, as the eels were plenty and easily taken. But there can be too much even of a good thing. Calm weather continued for a succession of days, causing the salt water to be covered with a sort of scum. The Indians say it is the result of sickness and vomiting among the larger fish; this scum prevents the fishermen from seeing into the water, and consequently is adverse to eel-spearing.
     This took place on the occasion referred to, and so they sought for a remedy. The big bird was visited and his wing examined. It was sufficiently recovered to admit of motion, and he was told to keep both his wings going, but that the motion must be steady and gentle. This produced the desired effect.

Indra, God of Storms and War

In Hindu mythology, Indra, the storm god, was one of the three most important deities.  The Hindu cosmos was made up of three levels - the sky realm above, the earth realm below and in between was the realm of atmosphere, which belonged to Indra.  While the importance of Indra has faded over time, during the Vedic period (1750-500BC) this god was frequently invoked to bring rain and is said to be in constant battle with Vritra, the demon of drought.  According to one myth, the earth was scorched and dry because the rain clouds had been imprisoned by Vritra.  When Indra heard the pleas of the people, he descended from the sky and was offered Soma, his favourite drink.  Pleased with this offering, Indra asked the people how he could help.  On hearing their plight, the god decided to fight the demon and rescue the rains.  Using a divine thunderbolt, Indra struck Vritra between the shoulders, slicing the mountains on which Vritra lay open.  This separated heaven from earth and land from water, freeing the rains which had been stolen and hoarded by Vritra.


The Thunderbird

Thunderbird (Joho) - Kwakiutl

Native American Indian tradition gives us the Thunderbird, a magical form of the eagle and symbolising the power of nature at its most dramatic.  It was believed that the beating of a Thunderbird's wings stirred the wind and made the rumble of thunder and when it blinked, lightning was said to flash from its eyes while individual lightning blots were caused by the glow snakes it was believed to carry with it.  The Miami Indians called it Piasa, meaning 'devourer of man', and believed that it required sacrifices to keep it from attacking the whole community.  The Lakota gave it the name Wakjya, with wakha meaning 'sacred' and kjya meaning 'winged'.

Some tribes viewed the Thunderbird as an omen of war and would constructed war huts of cedar - sacred to the Thunderbird - before taking part in war dances to appease the Thunderbird and to ensure victory in battle.  They would smoke tobacco - also sacred to the Thunderbird - which was said to lift their souls to the heavens where they could meet with the Thunderbird in the spirit-journey, further preparing them for battle and ensuring victory.

Thunderbird by Frank Gruber

Other tribes saw the Thunderbird as a nature spirit and solar animal, whose eyes were the sun and gave the people night and day simply by opening or shutting its eyes.  To Northwestern tribes, the Thunderbird is known as the Skyamsen and the rain-bringer, and countless ceremonies are conducted to honor and appease it.  For more information on the Thunderbird, this is a great web page and this one is tremendously helpful.

The Origin of the Thunderbird - A Passamaquoddy Legend
    This is a legend of long, long ago times.  Two Indians desired to find the origin of thunder.  They travelled north and came to a high mountain.  These mountains performed magically.  They drew apart, back and forth, then closed together very quickly.
    One Indian said, 'I will leap through the cleft before it closes.  If I am caught, you continue to find the origin of thunder.”  The first one succeeded in going through the cleft before it closed, but the second one was caught and squashed.
    On the other side, the first Indian saw a large plain with a group of wigwams, and a number of Indians playing a ball game.  After a little while, these players said to each other, “It is time to go.” They disappeared into their wigwams to put on wings, and came out with their bows and arrows and flew away over the mountains to the south. This was how the Passamaquoddy Indian discovered the homes of the thunderbirds.
    The remaining old men of that tribe asked the Passamaquoddy Indian, “What do you want? Who are you?” He replied with the story of his mission.  The old men deliberated how they could help him.
    They decided to put the lone Indian into a large mortar, and they pounded him until all of his bones were broken.  They molded him into a new body with wings like thunderbird, and gave him a bow and some arrows and sent him away in flight.  They warned him not to fly close to trees, as he would fly so fast he could not stop in time to avoid them, and he would be killed.
    The lone Indian could not reach his home because the huge enemy bird, Wochowsen, at that time made such a damaging wind.  Thunderbird is an Indian and he or his lightning would never harm another Indian. But Wochowsen, great bird from the south, tried hard to rival Thunderbird.  So Passamaquoddies feared Wochowsen, whose wings Glooscap once had broken, because he used too much power.
    A result was that for a long time air became stagnant, the sea was full of slime, and all of the fish died.  But Glooscap saw what was happening to his people and repaired the wings of Wochowsen to the extent of controlling and alternating strong winds with calm.
    Legend tells us this is how the new Passamaquoddy thunderbird, the lone Indian who passed through the cleft, in time became the great and powerful Thunderbird, who always has kept a watchful eye upon the good Indians.

Inkanyamba by Kate Rowland

The Rainbow Bridge in Richard Wagner’s Das Rheingold, 

directed by Otto Schenk (1990)

Kormt and Ormt and the Kerlaugs twain
Shall Thor each day wade through,
(When dooms to give he forth shall go
To the ash-tree Yggdrasil;)
For heaven's bridge burns all in flame,
And the sacred waters seethe.
                    - Poetic Edda

In Norse legend, the rainbow is a sacred and well known symbol.  It is referred to as Asabru, meaning 'Bridge of Gods' or, commonly Bifrost, the Rainbow Bridge, and is the connection between Midgard (the realm of humankind) and Asgard (the realm of the Gods).  The Rainbow Bridge was created with fire, water, and air.
 
'Now snatch'd by harpies to the dreary coast,
Sunk is the hero, and his glory lost...'

In Greek mythology we find the Harpies, daughters of Electra and Thaumas, whose names are usually given as Aello, Calaeno, Ocypete, and Podarge.  The Harpies, whose name means 'snatchers' in Greek, are depicted as winged women or as monstrous, clawed women.  They personify the storm winds and, in mythology, they are often found with other deities of the wind and air.

A medieval depiction of a harpy

Tawhiri, God of Wind and Storms - A Maori Tale

It happened that the brother's of Tawhiri agreed that their parents Rangi (the Sky) and Papa (the Earth) should be separated.  Tawhiri disagreed and was furious.  He hid himself in the sky and planned the perfect revenge.  From his place in the sky, Tawhiri sent thunderstorms and hurricanes to his brother Tane-mahute, the god of the forests.  The storms left destruction and devastation in their path.  Tawhiri sent storms across the oceans to punish his brother Tangaroa, the god of the sea and the storms made whirlpools and giant waves which upset the oceans.  He sent storms to his brothers Haurnia-tikitiki and Rongo-ma-tane, the gods of food, but they were protected by the Earth mother and were unharmed.  Tu-matauenga, the final brother, withstood the winds and rains of the storm.  He was the god of fierce humans.  Tawhiri went on to have thirteen cloud children who lived in the sky.  Some were dark and stormy, while others were light and puffy.  He also became the father of rain, mist, and fog.

In the mythology of Hawaii there are four goddesses associated with snow, called the Snow Maidens of Mauna Kea.  Always described with their white mantles, the goddesses are as follows:

• Lilinoe, sometimes known as the goddess of the mountain Haleakala.  She is said to have the power to stop the mountain from erupting and is also known as the goddess of dead fires and desolation.  'She sometimes clothed the long summit of the mountain with a glorious garment of snow several miles in length.'  In some legends Lilinoe is said to be the wife of Nana-Nuu, the great flood survivor.

• Waiau is another of the snow goddesses.  Unfortunately any legends about her are lost in time.  However, there is a like in one of the craters on the summit of a mountain which is called Waiau and it's possible that this lake is connected in some way with the Snow Maiden.

• Kaboupokane is said to have controlled the snows which fall on the desolate summits of the mountain Hualalai.  Again, there don't seem to be any surviving myths of legends containing this Snow Maiden.

• The best known is Poliahu, who loved the eastern cliffs of Hawaii and is often described wearing a mantle of pure white kapa.  And for this Snow Maiden, we have a suriviving myth of which I can relate to you.

Pele and the Snow Goddess - A Hawaiian Legend

Poliahu by Herb Kane 

Poliahu and her friends had come down Mauna Kea to a sloping hillside south of Hamakua.  Suddenly in their midst appeared a stranger of surpassing beauty.  Poliahu welcomed her and the races (race of sleds) were continued... Pele, the maiden of volcanic fires, was angered by the superiority of Poliahu.  The ground began to grow warm and Poliahu knew her enemy.
Pele threw off all disguise and called for the forces of fire to burst open the doors of the subterranean caverns of Mauna Kea.  Up toward the mountain she marshalled her fire-fountains.  Poliahu fled toward the summit.  The snow-mantle was seized by the outbursting lava and began to burn up.  Poliahu grasped the robe, dragging it away and carrying it with her.  Soon she regained strength and threw the mantle over the mountain.

Weather Lore: Fact or Fiction?

Weather Lore can be traced back over thousands of years.  Farmers and sailors were and are dependent on the weather, and for good reason.  Their very survival is at stake.  Doubtless, we've looked up at the sky many a time, trying to discern the signs of what may lay ahead and this action has probably occurred since the first men walked the earth. 
The following weather rhymes  have been handed down from generation to generation and have science to back them up. 

Red sky at night, sailor's/ shepherd's delight.
Red sky in the morning sailor's/ shepherd's warning.

This rhyme goes all the way back to the last quarter of the 1st century where, in Matthew XVI: 2-3, it says - When in evening, ye say, it will be fair weather: For sky is red.  And in the morning, it will be foul weather today; for the sky is red and lowering.
A deep red sunset is often associated with high pressure and calm, dry weather.  It may indicate a prolonged time of good weather if the sky is red around the sun, which is more important than any clouds which may be around the sun. A red sky in the morning needs slightly different interpretation as it's not so much the sky, but the clouds coming from the west that might be lit red by the sun.  If this is the case, it may indicate rain that will arrive some time in the near future, hence the warning.

If a circle forms 'round the moon
'twill rain or snow soon.

A halo around the moon is caused by light refraction caused by the ice crystals of high clouds.  While these clouds carry no rain, they are known to predict low pressure and undesirable weather.

Rainbow to windward, foul fall the day;
Rainbow to leeward, rain runs away.If the wind is blowing from the direction of the rainbow it's possible that rain is on the way.  If the wind is blowing towards the rainbow, the rain has passed you - unless there's more on the way...

 

Mare's tails and mackerel scales
Make tall ships carry low sails.

Mares tales are high cirrus clouds which have been shaped by the wind and can indicate that poor weather is approaching.  Markerel scales are cirrocumulus clouds, which like mare's tails, are shaped by winds moving at high speed and shifting directions, are typical of approaching low pressure weather fronts.

That's it for now.  Next time: The mythology and legend natural disasters.


Useful Resources

http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/learning/wind/what-causes-wind
http://weatherbreak2.creighton.edu/?p=1635
http://markturnersmysteriousworld.blogspot.co.uk/2011/06/thunderbird-legends-sightings-evidence.html
https://plus.google.com/110520715489205190628/posts/hA1wFWkrPis
http://www.timothystephany.com/thunderbird.html
http://www.mythencyclopedia.com/Go-Hi/Hinduism-and-Mythology.html
http://www.ancientindia.co.uk/staff/resources/background/bg32/bg32pdf.pdf
http://www.windows2universe.org/mythology/planets/Earth/weather_myths.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospel_of_Matthew#CITEREFDaviesAllison2004
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-14087734
http://www.boatsafe.com/nauticalknowhow/weather_proverbs.htm
http://farmersalmanac.com/weather/2009/02/23/top-4-folklore-favorites/

Tales of te North American Indian by Stith Thompson
Dictionary of Nature Myths: Legends of Earth, Sea, and Sky by Tamra Andrews
The Encyclopedia of Religion and Nature: K-Z, Volume 2 - Edited by Bron Taylor
The Odyssey of Homer - Translated by Alexander Pope
Fabulous Creatures, Mythical Monsters, and Animal Power Symbols: A Handbook by Cassandra Eason
Hawaiian Legends of Volcanoes by William Westervelt.

Halloween and Celebrations of the Dead - A History

Everyone has heard of Halloween.  A night for the children to dress up and go trick or treating.  However, this is not how it began.  Let us take a look at the origins of Halloween and the many other celebrations of the dead throughout the history of mankind.

Samhain

First celebrated in the form of a Celtic Fire festival in Europe around 2000 years ago, Samhain is now celebrated worldwide.  However, over the years it has changed and evolved.  Since ancient times October 31st has been celebrated in Ireland, Scotland and England as a feast of the dead and also marked the new year.  For the Scottish, the Gaelic word 'Samhain' (pronounced 'saw-win'/ saw-vane') simply means 'summer's end'.  In Europe it marks the beginning of winter, when flocks were brought in from the cold until spring and the last crop gathering, known as 'Harvest Home', was celebrated with festivals and fairs. 

According to the tenth-century Gaelic text Tochmarc Emire, Samhain is 'the first of the four quarter days in the medieval Irish calendar, ''when the summer goes to its rest.'''As well as a period of stock-taking and the reorganising of communities for the winter it was a period of supernatural intensity, 'when the forces of darkness and decay were said to be abroad, spilling out from the sidh...'  In order to ward off these spirits, the Irish invoked the help of gods through animal and, possibly, human sacrifice as well as building huge, symbolically regenerative bonfires.

At sunset on October 31st the formal celebrations of Samhain began by lighting a giant bonfire.  The clans and local villagers would gather around the fire to burn crops and animals as sacrifices to Celtic deities.  The sacred fires were also a method of cleansing of the past year and a way to prepare for the start of the new year.  During their celebrations, the Celts would wear costumes and dance around the bonfire, with many of these dances telling stories, commemorating the cycle of the Wheel of Life and playing out the cycles of life and death.

Costumes were worn for three primary reasons.  The first was to honour the dead that were allowed to rise from the Otherworld.  The Celts believed souls were released from the land of the dead on the night of Samhain, with those that were trapped in the bodies of animals being set free by the Lord of the Dead and sent to their new incarnations. Their costumes signified the release of these souls into the physical world.  The second reason was to hide from the souls which the Celts believed returned to destroy crops, hide livestock and 'haunt' the living that may have done wrong.  The third reason was to honour the Celtic Gods and Goddesses of the harvest, fields and flocks, to give thanks to those deities who assisted the people through the difficulties of the previous year and to ask for their favour during the coming year as well as the cold, harsh mothers of winter ahead. 

It was believed, and still is by many, to be a time when the veil between the worlds of the living and the dead was at its thinnest and was an opportunity for the spirits of the dead to join the living for a feast with their loved ones.  It was also believed that the Otherworld provided additional energy for communication between the living and the dead, and was a time for Druid Priests and Celtic Shamans to attempt to tell the fortunes of the people through various methods, such as throwing bones or casting the Celtic Ogham (a script from the 3rd or 4th centuries, sometimes known as the Ogham Script, the Irish Alphabet, of the Celtic Runes).

According to Roman writings, there were other methods, including the reading of tea leaves, rocks and twigs, as wells as what we would today call Channelling.  Some historians suggest that these early people were the first to use the precursor to Tarot Cards.

After the initial celebrations, each family would take a torch or burning ember from the sacred fire and return home.  The home fires would then be re lit with the flames of the sacred fire to protect both the home and those dwelling within.  These fires were kept lit throughout the winter, with the people believing that if the fire was lost, tragedy would soon follow.  Once lit, the family would put food and drink outside their doors to please those spirits which might play tricks on the family.

Some celebrate Samhain over several days and nights, with these days and nights being marked with ceremonies, feasts and gatherings of friends and family as well as the spiritual community.  In the northern hemisphere, Samhain is most often celebrated from sundown on October 31st and throughout the day of November 1st.  Others celebrate on the closest weekend or on the full or new moon closest to this time.  Others still observe the celebration closer to November 6th in order to coincide with the astronomical midpoint between the Autumn Equinox and the Winter Solstice.  In the southern hemisphere, Samhain is observed in the middle of Autumn, in late April and early May.

Then Came the Romans...

By 43AD, the Romans had conquered most of the Celtic territories, bringing with them their own festivals and traditions and merging several of them with the celebration of Samhain.  Feralia, a Roman festival for commemorating dead ancestors is believed by some  to be one of them.  However, according to the writings of Ovid, Feralia was the last day of the Roman festival Parentalia - a nine-day event beginning on February 13th and ending on February 21st.  On February 21st Roman citizens brought offerings to the tombs of their loved ones to honour them.  These offerings consisted of wreaths, grain, salt, violets and bread soaked in wine.  So it seems that the dates may have become confused or, perhaps, changed.  However, the concept is the same.  Ovid tells us that the Romans, in a time of war, failed to honour their dead and, as a consequence, the spirits of their ancestors rose from their graves and roamed around howling until the rituals were performed.

 Pomona

Pomona, or Pomorum, is another Roman festival which, according to some sources, falls on November 1st.  It was believed to be the time to honour Pomona, the Roman goddess of fruit trees, gardens, and orchards as wells as, according to some, the harvest.  She was also considered to be a wood nymph and one of the guardians who watched over people, places and homes.  Her names originates from the word apple, which is her symbol and we can find this symbol in the Samhain and Halloween when we go bobbing for apples.

Lemura is the third Roman festival to be blended with Samhain.  Celebrated in May, this ancient feast was a time for the Romans to exorcise malevolent spirits of the dead from their homes.  According to Ovid, the head of the household would walk barefoot around the house at midnight, throwing nine black beans over his should and chanting while the rest of the household clashed bronze pots.

From Samhain to Halloween

When looking at the origins of modern Halloween we must take into account the Christianization of the pagan celebration of Samhain.  Samhain became the Halloween we are now familiar with when Christian missionaries attempted to covert the religious practises of the Celtic people.  In an effort to effectively wipe out the 'pagan' faith, Christians had a huge impact in transforming the traditions of the ancient Celts.

In 601AD Pope Gregory I gave the edict that rather than destroying native peoples' traditions and beliefs, missionaries should use them to convert the people.  For example, if the people worshipped a tree the missionaries should consecrate it to Christ and allow the people to continue worshipping it rather than cutting it down.  This became the basic approach in all Catholic missionary work, with Church holy days purposely set to coincide with native days of celebration and worship.  For example, Christmas, said to be the celebration of the birth of Jesus (the birth date of Jesus is actually unknown), only really falls on December 25th because it corresponded with the Yule celebrations. 

With its emphasis on the supernatural, Samhain was very much Pagan and, as such, was branded by the Catholics as evil and associated with the devil.  Catholic missionaries attempted to diminish these beliefs, allowing the supernatural to persist whilst making the deliberate attempt to define them as being malicious.  Those that continued to follow the old ways were forced into hiding and were branded as witches.  The Christian feast of All Saints Day, a day to honour Christian saints,  was reassigned to November 1st and was an attempt to, in the long run, forever replace Samhain.  Unfortunately for the Church, Samhain never truly died.  The tradition was too strongly ingrained into belief  to be satisfied with this new Catholic tradition.  They tried again to substitute the belief in the 9th century with All Souls' Day, assigned to November 2nd.  While it gave the people a day to pray for the souls of the dead and allowed them to retain their traditional customs while attempting to redefine them, the traditional beliefs and customs lived on.

All Saints Day, also known as All Hallows (meaning sanctified of holy), allowed the ancient Celts to continue their traditions.  On All Hallows Eve, the people continued to celebrate the wandering dead, putting out gifts of food and drink to keep the now considered evil spirits at bay.  This night, in turn, became known as Halloween. 

Trick-or-Treat

The practise of trick-or-treating is believed to stem from two practises which were eventually combined.  The first is called 'mumming', a medieval practise where people would disguise themselves and go from door to door receiving offerings for a song, poem, joke or some other 'trick'.  The second was the tradition of leaving out food for the dead to gain their favour. 

A Quick Look at Other Celebrations of the Dead

The Festival of the Hungry Ghosts or Yue Lan is celebrated by the Chinese.  According to traditional Chinese belief, restless spirits roam the earth during the seventh month of the lunar calendar.   The festival is held on the 15th day, with the Chinese making efforts to please and give comfort to these restless spirits by giving them gifts.  The festival has its roots in the Chinese practise of ancestor worship and is celebrated by around 1.2 million people in Hong Kong for the entire seventh lunar month.  Here you can see the people offering sacrifices to their ancestors and wandering spirits, burning incense and joss paper, giving free rice and performing live Chinese operas.

 Festival of the Hungry Ghosts

The Bon Festival of Japan has been celebrated for over 500 years.  It is a three day long Buddhist custom, most commonly celebrated on August 15th, which involves fireworks, games, feasts and dances, including the Bon Odori which is meant to welcome the spirits.  The festival has its roots in a legend in which a man asked Buddha for help when, during meditation, he saw that his deceased mother was trapped and suffering in the realm of Hungry Ghosts.  Buddha told the man to pay homage to the monks that had just finished their summer meditation.  In doing so, the man saw the release of his mother and, overjoyed, broke into dance.

 Bon Festival

The Qingming festival, also known as Ancestors or Tomb-Sweeping Day, is a Chinese national holiday which takes place in mid-April.  It is a time for families to visit the tombs of their ancestors and to give them a good cleaning.  Offerings of food, tea and joss paper are also made.  The festival is said to date back to 732AD, from the reign of Tang emperor Xuanzong who declared that there were too many celebrations of ancestors and said that these should only fall on Qingming.

The Hindu tradition of Pitru Paksha, also known as the Fortnight of the Ancestors, is a 15 day period during the Hindu month of Ashwin where people remember their ancestors, particularly with offerings of food.  Hindu mythology tells us that when the soul of Karna, a deceased warrior, reached heaven he found nothing to eat but gold.  Karna asked the lord of heaven, Indra, where he could find food, but was told that he could only eat gold because he had never offered food to his ancestors when he was alive.  After much discussion, Karna was allowed to return to earth for 15 days to make offerings of food and water.  During the festival offerings are made, as well as daily death rituals which are completed by priests.  If the proper rituals are made and the proper offerings are received and accepted, it is said that the ancestors will bestow wealth, health and salvation on the people.

 El Dia de los Muerto

El Dia de los Muerto or Day of the Dead is, like All Saints' and All Souls' Day, observed on November 1st and 2nd.  It is most ofter celebrated in Mexico where it is a national holiday, but can also be seen in the Philippines and the U.S.  Day of the Dead has its origins in the month long Aztec harvest celebration overseen by the Lady of the Dead, Goddess Mixtecacihuatl.  It is probably one of the most recognisable celebrations of the dead due to the associated imagery of grinning skeletons which, unlike Halloween, are not meant to be frightening, with their intended perception being that of a grand celebration of the deceased.  During the festival you can see people wearing masks whilst feasting, singing and dancing.

Sources
http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/paganism/holydays/samhain.shtml
http://www.witchvox.com/va/dt_va.html?a=usma&c=holidays&id=2204
https://www.circlesanctuary.org/index.php/celebrating-the-seasons/celebrating-samhain
http://www.paganspath.com/magik/celtic/ogham.htm
http://www.rannsiracusa.com/blog/feralia-and-the-origins-of-halloween
http://www.discoverhongkong.com/uk/see-do/events-festivals/chinese-festivals/the-hungry-ghost-festival.jsp
http://listverse.com/2013/01/19/10-festivals-that-honor-the-dead/
Halloween: From Pagan Ritual to Party Night by Nicholas Rogers

Images
http://www.kateforsyth.com.au/kates-blog/tag/Celtic_lore/
http://thewildgeese.com/profiles/blogs/it-s-a-celtic-feast
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pomona
http://online.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424127887324747104579023861625197646
http://vanheb.wordpress.com/tag/bon-festival/
http://remezcla.com/lists/10-cant-miss-halloween-dia-de-muertos-parties-los-angeles/

The Origins of Witchcraft

The Origins of Witchcraft

Everyone has heard about the witch-hunts and persecution of witches which occurred mostly between the 14^th and 17^th centuries, a period known as the The Early Modern period, but where does our modern perception of witchcraft come from? In fact, where did our 14^th century predecessors get their concept of witchcraft? In other words, where did witchcraft originate and how has it evolved?

The word 'witch' originates from the Anglo-Saxon word 'wicca', which was derived from the word 'wicce' meaning wise. The word 'witch' also means to 'twist' or 'bend', and relates to psychogenesis or telekinesis. The word 'witch' dates back thousands of years, to when people worshipped Mother Earth or Nature as goddesses. Women were revered as creatures of new life. Witchcraft means 'the craft of the wise' and is the oldest religion in the world, remaining in existence through the oral transfer of knowledge from one generation to the next. It was primarily practiced by women as they stayed at home while the men worked. Witchcraft incompassed not ony magic - home medicines and remedies including potions, herbs, stones, oils, and massages were important factors.

Earth Mother by Shere Crossman (Original)

Essentially, witchcraft was created along with human civilization due to fear of the unknown, and because of the role magic was believed to play in making day-to-day life easier. Witches were the mediators between humans and mysterious super powers, such as spirits and angels. When a witch succeeded in solving someone's apparently mysterious problem, it was labelled magic: a process which couldn't be easily explained using logical analysis. Witchcraft was practiced in almost every society and culture across the world, although beliefs and traditions differed from place to place. According to scholars, it predates the majority of well-known religions and goes back to the Paleolithic period.

Archaeological discoveries have shown us how people worshipped the hunter god and fertility goddess during this period. The presence of cave paintings, estimated to be 30,000 years old, which protray a man with the head of a stag, along with another showing a pregnant woman standing in a circle made up of eleven other people, proves that witchcraft is one of the oldest religions in the world. These relics are evidence that witchcraft predates Christianity by thousands of years.

 Dancing Witch Doctor Cave Painting Copy by Abbe' Breuil (Original)

While it was more often practiced by women, men were also witches, although this was less common. Witches were considered highly valuable, providing vital services for the health of the family. They healed the sick and suffering and were respected for how wise they were.  Witches had a range of different uses, being capable of inducing hypnosis, making childbirth and other health problems pain free; they could use telepathy, clairvoyance, intuition, dowsing, crystals, and trance as means of communicating with the dead. At this point, religion and magic were inseparable. However, as people flocked to witches with the health problems, the Christian Church began to feel threatened. 

 

The Wise Woman from Catkin (Original)

While witches and their craft were once respected, it has evolved massively since its creation. As we come to the growth of Christianity, witchcraft changed to suit this new religion, which portrayed the practice of magic as evil and those practicing it as heathens and heretics. Many of the ideas incorporated into the practise of witchcraft were taken from popular folklore, with the development of these beliefs being the responsibility of the Christian intellects of the time, before being filtered back to the common people through indirect means.

When looking at the old beliefs in witchcraft, one of the common elements is involvement with the Devil and demons. During the Middle Ages, the Devil was usually known as Satan, meaning 'the adversary'. Satan did not play a particularly big role in the Old Testament, but he was far more apparent in the New Testament, where he tempted those with a belief in God, trying to get them to turn their backs on their religion. In the New Testament, the war between the Kingdom of God and the Kingdom of Satan began, each trying to gain control of the souls of mortal men.

You may wonder what this has to do with the evolution of witchcraft and that Christianity has little to do with witchcraft.  However, the growth of Christianity had a great deal to do with the later views on witchcraft. As Christianity spread, it encontered other beliefs and other religions, all of which those following Christianity would try to convert to the 'one true faith.' Those seen to be denying the word of God and to be leading souls away from God were seen to be a part of the Kingdom of Satan.

Before long, Christianity began to demonize the gods belonging to other religions, especially those which had converted to Christianity. Pagan deities were some of the most often used to describe the Devil, along with Roman and Celtic deities. People were taught to fear and hate these deities, with fertility gods most often being recognised as demonic. The Greek deity Pan and the Celtic Cernunnos gave the Christian Devil his goat-like appearance, with the Roman Diana adding the sometimes described woman''s breasts to his description. In the confessions of accused witches, these details were often described, although they were probably prompted by the inquisitor.

 The Persecution of Witches (Original)

In the 12^th and 13^th centuries, demons were creatures of spirit – much like angels, these were the fallen angels. If a demon were to be visible, its body was said to be made from the vapours of the earth, with this control of the air later becoming an imporant theory for the flight of witches.

The Christian religion maintained that only God could cause a miracle. Any claim that the Devil could control creation or free will was considered heretical, and any 'miraculous transformations' were considered to be an illusion, with illusion being one of the Devil's supposed powers over the material world. Where the Devil was considered to have power over the material world, God was believed to provide humans with free will. So, if you were seen as being possessed by demons, it was believed that it was through your own choice. According to Malleus Maleficarum, the Devil could influence a person's choices through bibery and tricks. This meant that accused witches maintained their moral responsibility, especially is a pact with the Devil had been made.

This brings us to another important element in accepted witch traditions. A pact with the Devil meant that not only did you practise harmful magic, you were also considered to be a Devil worshipper. This idea was developed over many centuries, with the earliest documentation of such pacts being by St. Augustine, although the belief didn't become widespread until the descriptions were translated into Latin during the 9^th century. It was, by this point in time, believed that all magic practisioners received their powers from pacts with the Devil, although not all Devil worshippers were granted magical powers. A pact with the Devil was seen as some kind of legal contract with the Devil promising a reward in exchange for the witch's immortal soul. This reward may be a promise of wealth, power, sexual indulgence, or happiness in the afterlife. In some instances the witch would be bestowed with magical powers.

A portrayal of Devil worship and cannibalism committed by witches (Original)

The practice of magic increased in the 12^th and 13^th centuries with the transaltions of Greek and Islamic texts. One popular magical practice was necromancy, or communication with the dead, where demons would be apparently summoned so they could be trapped, meaning the witch could learn from their hidden knowledge. As the practice of magic became more common, so did condemnation of these practices, with demonologists stating that while necromancers may not mean to worship the Devil, their communications with demons must come with a price. They concluded that the witch must need to offer some form of bait for the demon, or do some service for the Devil in exchange for the demons knowledge. This meant that even if the practisioner didn't intend to worship the Devil, anything considered the practice of magic was condemned as evil.

This was not the first condemnation of magic, but a pact with the Devil was an imporant addition to witchcraft traditions, making the label of witch applicable to peasants who practiced magic with little or no understanding of the implications of their actions – a pact with the Devil, whether it was was intentional or not. This connection between magic and heresy was then used to condemn other so called heretics, including those found to be involved in secret, group worship and abnormal, inhumane behaviour. Witchcraft became a sort of religious mockery of Christianity, which was best expressed during the witches' sabbath, the next element in the concept of witchcraft.

At this point there was a shift of focus from the upper-class, educated, male magician to the poor, unknowledgable, female witch. There was a corresponding change in the attributes of the pact, from equal partnership where the magicial could fight for the advantage, to a role of subservience, where the witch submitted voluntarily. This was pointed out by King James VI of Scotland, when he said, ''Witches are servants only, and slaves to the Devil; but the Necromancers are his masters and commanders.''

A gathering of witches was known as the sabbath and was a place for those Devil worshippers to debase themselves, taking part in sexual activities with demons, cannibalism and the murder of innocent infants. In some parts of Europe, including France, Spain and Italy, witches were believed to take part in parodies of the Catholic Mass. When all of these activities were connected they provided fulfilled Christians worst fears. This society of so-called witch lore may have been invented by monks during the 12^th and 13^th centuries as propaganda in the war against other beliefs, such as those held by the Waldensians and Cathars, before being applied to other heretics. These intense accusations became a huge burden for accused witches as knowledge of heretical practices grew.

Belief in the sabbath was not universal, although it was widespread and an important addition to those who hunted witches. The assumption that witches gathered to worship the Devil led to many endless hunts for those connected to the accused witches, and was probably a contributing factor in the scale of the exhaustive searches.

Coven in Flight (Original)

Another belief that was often included in witch lore was the claim that witches were capable of flight. One way of doing this was through the Devil's material control over the air, which could propel a witch for great distances through the air. Another theory was that the Devil used his power of illusion, making the witch believe that they had flown. This second idea was also used in claims that the sabbath itself was an illusion. Regardless, flight was used to explain how witches were able to attend sabbaths which were believed to be held in remote areas. Origins of this concept may go back to pagan beliefs which were still followed by many peasants. One of these beliefs held that women could transform into strigae, or abhorrent screeching owls. Another belief was of the Dianic 'wild hunt, when a witch was said to ride through the countryside on the backs of various beasts.

Metamorphosis was another element in Early Modern witch lore. It was said that a witch was capable of transforming themselves or others into animals, with a particular favourite being the wolf. While this too was supposedly another of the Devil's illusion, it was a common assumption. To us, these beliefs may seem far-fetched but, at the time, they seemed like rational explanations. These beliefs were often challenged, although no one dared to deny the central theme of the Devil, which held the entire movement in one piece.

So, when looking at the origins of witchcraft, one has to understand that it had been present in society since the dawn of time, with witches being considered wise and important. However, with the growth of Christianity, fear of witches and the practice of magic was instilled into the public, pushing them to convert from their life-long religion to the 'one true faith', Christianity. What followed was the accusation and murder of many innocents who had often committed no crime or wrong doing.

Fortunately, with modern witchcraft, respect for this practice has once again grown and is now followed by many people in the modern age, without the fear of persecution. It attracts people from all walks of life, bringing them together in an understanding of the life, nature, evolution and mysteries of the universe through witchcraft. Unlike other religions, witchcraft allows a huge amount of freedom, with the only real rules being that you should harm none unless you wish it to be returned to you three times three, nor should nature be misused the generosity of nature by distrupting its balance. 

Next time: We will take a closer look at the persecution of witches during the Salem Witch Trials.