Halloween and Celebrations of the Dead - A History

Everyone has heard of Halloween.  A night for the children to dress up and go trick or treating.  However, this is not how it began.  Let us take a look at the origins of Halloween and the many other celebrations of the dead throughout the history of mankind.

Samhain

First celebrated in the form of a Celtic Fire festival in Europe around 2000 years ago, Samhain is now celebrated worldwide.  However, over the years it has changed and evolved.  Since ancient times October 31st has been celebrated in Ireland, Scotland and England as a feast of the dead and also marked the new year.  For the Scottish, the Gaelic word 'Samhain' (pronounced 'saw-win'/ saw-vane') simply means 'summer's end'.  In Europe it marks the beginning of winter, when flocks were brought in from the cold until spring and the last crop gathering, known as 'Harvest Home', was celebrated with festivals and fairs. 

According to the tenth-century Gaelic text Tochmarc Emire, Samhain is 'the first of the four quarter days in the medieval Irish calendar, ''when the summer goes to its rest.'''As well as a period of stock-taking and the reorganising of communities for the winter it was a period of supernatural intensity, 'when the forces of darkness and decay were said to be abroad, spilling out from the sidh...'  In order to ward off these spirits, the Irish invoked the help of gods through animal and, possibly, human sacrifice as well as building huge, symbolically regenerative bonfires.

At sunset on October 31st the formal celebrations of Samhain began by lighting a giant bonfire.  The clans and local villagers would gather around the fire to burn crops and animals as sacrifices to Celtic deities.  The sacred fires were also a method of cleansing of the past year and a way to prepare for the start of the new year.  During their celebrations, the Celts would wear costumes and dance around the bonfire, with many of these dances telling stories, commemorating the cycle of the Wheel of Life and playing out the cycles of life and death.

Costumes were worn for three primary reasons.  The first was to honour the dead that were allowed to rise from the Otherworld.  The Celts believed souls were released from the land of the dead on the night of Samhain, with those that were trapped in the bodies of animals being set free by the Lord of the Dead and sent to their new incarnations. Their costumes signified the release of these souls into the physical world.  The second reason was to hide from the souls which the Celts believed returned to destroy crops, hide livestock and 'haunt' the living that may have done wrong.  The third reason was to honour the Celtic Gods and Goddesses of the harvest, fields and flocks, to give thanks to those deities who assisted the people through the difficulties of the previous year and to ask for their favour during the coming year as well as the cold, harsh mothers of winter ahead. 

It was believed, and still is by many, to be a time when the veil between the worlds of the living and the dead was at its thinnest and was an opportunity for the spirits of the dead to join the living for a feast with their loved ones.  It was also believed that the Otherworld provided additional energy for communication between the living and the dead, and was a time for Druid Priests and Celtic Shamans to attempt to tell the fortunes of the people through various methods, such as throwing bones or casting the Celtic Ogham (a script from the 3rd or 4th centuries, sometimes known as the Ogham Script, the Irish Alphabet, of the Celtic Runes).

According to Roman writings, there were other methods, including the reading of tea leaves, rocks and twigs, as wells as what we would today call Channelling.  Some historians suggest that these early people were the first to use the precursor to Tarot Cards.

After the initial celebrations, each family would take a torch or burning ember from the sacred fire and return home.  The home fires would then be re lit with the flames of the sacred fire to protect both the home and those dwelling within.  These fires were kept lit throughout the winter, with the people believing that if the fire was lost, tragedy would soon follow.  Once lit, the family would put food and drink outside their doors to please those spirits which might play tricks on the family.

Some celebrate Samhain over several days and nights, with these days and nights being marked with ceremonies, feasts and gatherings of friends and family as well as the spiritual community.  In the northern hemisphere, Samhain is most often celebrated from sundown on October 31st and throughout the day of November 1st.  Others celebrate on the closest weekend or on the full or new moon closest to this time.  Others still observe the celebration closer to November 6th in order to coincide with the astronomical midpoint between the Autumn Equinox and the Winter Solstice.  In the southern hemisphere, Samhain is observed in the middle of Autumn, in late April and early May.

Then Came the Romans...

By 43AD, the Romans had conquered most of the Celtic territories, bringing with them their own festivals and traditions and merging several of them with the celebration of Samhain.  Feralia, a Roman festival for commemorating dead ancestors is believed by some  to be one of them.  However, according to the writings of Ovid, Feralia was the last day of the Roman festival Parentalia - a nine-day event beginning on February 13th and ending on February 21st.  On February 21st Roman citizens brought offerings to the tombs of their loved ones to honour them.  These offerings consisted of wreaths, grain, salt, violets and bread soaked in wine.  So it seems that the dates may have become confused or, perhaps, changed.  However, the concept is the same.  Ovid tells us that the Romans, in a time of war, failed to honour their dead and, as a consequence, the spirits of their ancestors rose from their graves and roamed around howling until the rituals were performed.

 Pomona

Pomona, or Pomorum, is another Roman festival which, according to some sources, falls on November 1st.  It was believed to be the time to honour Pomona, the Roman goddess of fruit trees, gardens, and orchards as wells as, according to some, the harvest.  She was also considered to be a wood nymph and one of the guardians who watched over people, places and homes.  Her names originates from the word apple, which is her symbol and we can find this symbol in the Samhain and Halloween when we go bobbing for apples.

Lemura is the third Roman festival to be blended with Samhain.  Celebrated in May, this ancient feast was a time for the Romans to exorcise malevolent spirits of the dead from their homes.  According to Ovid, the head of the household would walk barefoot around the house at midnight, throwing nine black beans over his should and chanting while the rest of the household clashed bronze pots.

From Samhain to Halloween

When looking at the origins of modern Halloween we must take into account the Christianization of the pagan celebration of Samhain.  Samhain became the Halloween we are now familiar with when Christian missionaries attempted to covert the religious practises of the Celtic people.  In an effort to effectively wipe out the 'pagan' faith, Christians had a huge impact in transforming the traditions of the ancient Celts.

In 601AD Pope Gregory I gave the edict that rather than destroying native peoples' traditions and beliefs, missionaries should use them to convert the people.  For example, if the people worshipped a tree the missionaries should consecrate it to Christ and allow the people to continue worshipping it rather than cutting it down.  This became the basic approach in all Catholic missionary work, with Church holy days purposely set to coincide with native days of celebration and worship.  For example, Christmas, said to be the celebration of the birth of Jesus (the birth date of Jesus is actually unknown), only really falls on December 25th because it corresponded with the Yule celebrations. 

With its emphasis on the supernatural, Samhain was very much Pagan and, as such, was branded by the Catholics as evil and associated with the devil.  Catholic missionaries attempted to diminish these beliefs, allowing the supernatural to persist whilst making the deliberate attempt to define them as being malicious.  Those that continued to follow the old ways were forced into hiding and were branded as witches.  The Christian feast of All Saints Day, a day to honour Christian saints,  was reassigned to November 1st and was an attempt to, in the long run, forever replace Samhain.  Unfortunately for the Church, Samhain never truly died.  The tradition was too strongly ingrained into belief  to be satisfied with this new Catholic tradition.  They tried again to substitute the belief in the 9th century with All Souls' Day, assigned to November 2nd.  While it gave the people a day to pray for the souls of the dead and allowed them to retain their traditional customs while attempting to redefine them, the traditional beliefs and customs lived on.

All Saints Day, also known as All Hallows (meaning sanctified of holy), allowed the ancient Celts to continue their traditions.  On All Hallows Eve, the people continued to celebrate the wandering dead, putting out gifts of food and drink to keep the now considered evil spirits at bay.  This night, in turn, became known as Halloween. 

Trick-or-Treat

The practise of trick-or-treating is believed to stem from two practises which were eventually combined.  The first is called 'mumming', a medieval practise where people would disguise themselves and go from door to door receiving offerings for a song, poem, joke or some other 'trick'.  The second was the tradition of leaving out food for the dead to gain their favour. 

A Quick Look at Other Celebrations of the Dead

The Festival of the Hungry Ghosts or Yue Lan is celebrated by the Chinese.  According to traditional Chinese belief, restless spirits roam the earth during the seventh month of the lunar calendar.   The festival is held on the 15th day, with the Chinese making efforts to please and give comfort to these restless spirits by giving them gifts.  The festival has its roots in the Chinese practise of ancestor worship and is celebrated by around 1.2 million people in Hong Kong for the entire seventh lunar month.  Here you can see the people offering sacrifices to their ancestors and wandering spirits, burning incense and joss paper, giving free rice and performing live Chinese operas.

 Festival of the Hungry Ghosts

The Bon Festival of Japan has been celebrated for over 500 years.  It is a three day long Buddhist custom, most commonly celebrated on August 15th, which involves fireworks, games, feasts and dances, including the Bon Odori which is meant to welcome the spirits.  The festival has its roots in a legend in which a man asked Buddha for help when, during meditation, he saw that his deceased mother was trapped and suffering in the realm of Hungry Ghosts.  Buddha told the man to pay homage to the monks that had just finished their summer meditation.  In doing so, the man saw the release of his mother and, overjoyed, broke into dance.

 Bon Festival

The Qingming festival, also known as Ancestors or Tomb-Sweeping Day, is a Chinese national holiday which takes place in mid-April.  It is a time for families to visit the tombs of their ancestors and to give them a good cleaning.  Offerings of food, tea and joss paper are also made.  The festival is said to date back to 732AD, from the reign of Tang emperor Xuanzong who declared that there were too many celebrations of ancestors and said that these should only fall on Qingming.

The Hindu tradition of Pitru Paksha, also known as the Fortnight of the Ancestors, is a 15 day period during the Hindu month of Ashwin where people remember their ancestors, particularly with offerings of food.  Hindu mythology tells us that when the soul of Karna, a deceased warrior, reached heaven he found nothing to eat but gold.  Karna asked the lord of heaven, Indra, where he could find food, but was told that he could only eat gold because he had never offered food to his ancestors when he was alive.  After much discussion, Karna was allowed to return to earth for 15 days to make offerings of food and water.  During the festival offerings are made, as well as daily death rituals which are completed by priests.  If the proper rituals are made and the proper offerings are received and accepted, it is said that the ancestors will bestow wealth, health and salvation on the people.

 El Dia de los Muerto

El Dia de los Muerto or Day of the Dead is, like All Saints' and All Souls' Day, observed on November 1st and 2nd.  It is most ofter celebrated in Mexico where it is a national holiday, but can also be seen in the Philippines and the U.S.  Day of the Dead has its origins in the month long Aztec harvest celebration overseen by the Lady of the Dead, Goddess Mixtecacihuatl.  It is probably one of the most recognisable celebrations of the dead due to the associated imagery of grinning skeletons which, unlike Halloween, are not meant to be frightening, with their intended perception being that of a grand celebration of the deceased.  During the festival you can see people wearing masks whilst feasting, singing and dancing.

Sources
http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/paganism/holydays/samhain.shtml
http://www.witchvox.com/va/dt_va.html?a=usma&c=holidays&id=2204
https://www.circlesanctuary.org/index.php/celebrating-the-seasons/celebrating-samhain
http://www.paganspath.com/magik/celtic/ogham.htm
http://www.rannsiracusa.com/blog/feralia-and-the-origins-of-halloween
http://www.discoverhongkong.com/uk/see-do/events-festivals/chinese-festivals/the-hungry-ghost-festival.jsp
http://listverse.com/2013/01/19/10-festivals-that-honor-the-dead/
Halloween: From Pagan Ritual to Party Night by Nicholas Rogers

Images
http://www.kateforsyth.com.au/kates-blog/tag/Celtic_lore/
http://thewildgeese.com/profiles/blogs/it-s-a-celtic-feast
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pomona
http://online.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424127887324747104579023861625197646
http://vanheb.wordpress.com/tag/bon-festival/
http://remezcla.com/lists/10-cant-miss-halloween-dia-de-muertos-parties-los-angeles/

The Witch's Familiar

The Witch's Familiar

During the Medieval and Early Modern periods, belief in witchcraft was rife and predominant in the evidence used against witches during the witch trials was the familiar, or familiar spirit, although the belief in familiars goes back much further. A familiar was believed to be a supernatural entity, essentially a demon, which assisted witches and cunning folk in the practice of their craft and was said to be given to witches or cunning folk by the devil, although ancient lore says that they came from the Otherworld. The basic idea of a familiar probably emerged due to a need for humans to communicate with the unseen world of spirits, with the familiar first serving as a mediator between the physical and spiritual world. This concept later evolved, with the familiar becoming a companion and ally. With the rise of Christianity, the familiar became a servant, given by the Devil, and was considered to be a 'partner in evil' who helped the witch in casting evil spells. These supernatural entities appeared in many forms; often as an animal but were also believed to appear as human or as a humanoid figure. Cats, especially black cats, were favoured, with the fear of all cats being witches familiars resulting in cat massacres which swept through Medieval Europe. The demon helper was also said to inhabit dogs, toads and other small animals. Some sources also say that 'traditional vessels for such spirits were the cat, mouse, ferret, hare, bat, snake, hound, or bird – particularly a raven or an owl.' 

The Witch's Familiar (Original)

 

This connection between humans and animals can be traced back to Palaeolithic (2.5 million and 20,000 years ago) and Neolithic (4000-2500BC) notions, and can be seen in old shamanic practices associated with animal guides. Cave art, including etchings and drawings, depicts scenes that are believed to represent magical themes, along with artefacts from these periods representing different animals and creatures. Many of the animals represented in these periods are identical to those that have later appeared as familiar spirits, suggesting that they are related to ancient beliefs and practices. 

 

The earliest writings associated with witches and familiars show the similarity of a chthonic nature, with many of them being creatures of woodlands, wetlands, and caves which links them to Underworld themes and deities including Hecate, Diana, Pan and Proserpina. These deities are often associated with certain animals: Diana with the hound, Hecate with the toad, Pan with the goat and Proserpina with the serpent. The various types of familiar are often the same creatures associated with moon goddesses, mother goddesses and ancient chthonic deities. Our ancestors believed the night and the moon to be closely connected to the Otherworld and Spirit World, with folk beliefs holding that supernatural entities of the night lived in the dark and wooded places.

Diana and the Hound (Original)

The physical senses, hearing and sense of smell, are stronger in animals than in humans, and, from an occult perspective, their psychic senses are also stronger. So it is believed that a close relationship with a familiar strengthens the sense of a witch. Witches are said to have taken great care of their familiars. Emile Grillot de Givry, in Witchcraft, Magic and Alchemy (1931), describes how witches 'baptised their toads, dressed them in black velvet, put little bells on their paws and made them dance.' The familiar also benefits from this relationship, which supposedly provides the familiar with an expanded view of reality and reinforces the familiar's energy pattern. And so the familiar becomes the mediator between worlds. With both parties benefiting, a connection between the human consciousness and nature's consciousness are said to join, forming a magical consciousness. With both consciousnesses joined, the witch and familiar are said to be capable of opening portals to other realms, accomplishing magical outcomes in both the physical and astral plane. Legends of shapeshifting witches probably originates from these beliefs. In a Lancaster trial written by G. B. Harrison, we are told: 'But the spirits which appear now as men, now as animals, are, at first sight, more difficult to explain until it is remembered that in the witchcraft ritual the members of the coven disguise themselves as animals... (the familiars) are nothing more than the evil humans who were responsible for the whole business.' Owls were often associated with witches, giving us an example of how a witch was believed capable of changing their form. The Romans actually called the owl a 'strix', which translates as 'witch', with another term used during the Middle Ages being 'night hag', referring to the belief that the owl was a witch in bird form. In reality, the familiar is the magical partner and companion of the witch, and vice versa.

Owls were often believed to be a shape-shifted witch (Original)

The oldest idea of the familiar was that it was a spirit animal of an entire species of animal, represented by a single form. This is, in some cultures, called an animal guide or a power animal. These entities can supposedly be used as a link to Nature. This belief is often connected to shamanic practices . One of the earliest signs of the relationship between animal guides and humans can be seen in the Ver Sacrum, a religious practice pre-dating the rise of the Roman Empire which is connected with the Sacred Springtime of the ancient Italic tribes. This rite required the tribe to split up in order to form new colonies, during which their sacred animal was said to guide them. For example, the Sabellians were guided by a bull , the Piceni were guided by a woodpecker and the Lucani were guided by a wolf.

Over time, these supernatural beings, along with fairies, were combined into a common mythos. Jeffrey Burton Russell, author of Witchcraft in the Middle Ages, tells us: 'The small demons that became the Witches' Familiars of the later Middle Ages were originally dwarves, trolls, fairies, elves, kobolds, or the fertility spirits called Green Men...' He goes on to say that black and green were the favoured colours of witches, with green being the colour of the fairies. Richard Baxter, a Puritan cleric, was an earlier figure that viewed familiars as nature spirits. In his treatise, The Certainty of the World of Spirits, which was published in the year of his death, Baxter argued for the belief in 'invisible powers and spirits,' with the belief that familiars, or spirits of some kind, helped witches with the casting of spells and the raising of storms. He was, however, uncertain whether these spirits 'are neither Angels, good or bad,' or whether 'those called Fairies and Goblins are not such.' The fact that fairies were often believed to be familiars of witches shows the survival of Pagan beliefs in later periods.

 Quaker Witch with Demon Familiar (Original)

Another persistent theme within the belief of witchcraft is of the witch being transported to the Sabbat with help from their familiar. Fairy lore shows similarities to this belief with the transportation of humans to the Fairy Realm, which is suggestive of the Otherworld, with the crossing between the mortal and spirit realm with the help of a supernatural entity. Oral tradition tells us of how witches avoided detection by meeting in the astral plane to hold their Sabbats. This was aided with the use of 'flying ointments' which were smeared onto the skin and, within Fairy lore, the use of some magical dust or potion.

Witches often used the induction of trances to connect with other realms and here we can see the

connection of animal spirits as the magical partner of the witch. One ancient technique to induce a trance was to listen to the croaking of frogs. The frogs movement between land and water was possibly suggestive of a supernatural power possessed by the frog, giving it the capabilities to lead the witch to and from the spirit realm. Some folklorists of the 19^th century, such as Charles Leland, have pointed out the addition of bronze frog images that have been used by witches to aid them in the working of spells and magic, indicating a close connection between witches and frogs. Fairies and imps were also said to aid witches to travel 'in spirit' due to the belief that they lived within the spirit realm. They allowed the witch to enter into the Otherworld by locating the doors that link the physical to the spiritual, which is possibly why fairies and witches are often associated in folk beliefs throughout Europe and the UK. 

The Egyptian Dog Anubis (Original)

 

Another familiar believed to help a witch in their travels was the dog which was believed to be a guardian and keeper of the passage between the physical world and the Underworld. While the dog is often seen as a guardian of Underworld treasures, it is actually the guardian of secret knowledge associated with death and resurrection. The Egyptian dog, Anubis, is the attendant of the dead and the soul guide of the spirit land. Dogs are also associated with messenger gods and gods of destruction. The dog is often placed in the company of mother goddesses and healers. Like cats, dogs were regarded as witches' familiars and, according to J. C. Cooper, author of An Illustrated Encyclopaedia on Traditional Symbols, 'represent witches as rain-makers, hence 'raining cats and dogs.''

It was believed that a familiar could be used to trace a witch when dealing with curses and bewitchment. One witch trial held in 1665 for Rose Cullender and Amy Duny, both from Lowestoft, was concerned with the bewitchment of a child. It was noted that 'One of the sick child's blankets was hung up and anything found in it thrown into the fire. A toad obligingly appeared and exploded when put in the fire, after which the suspect was discovered and much scorched.' Medieval Christians believed toads to be 'familiars of witches, symbols of avarice and lust, and tormentors of those in Hell for these and other sins.' European folklore shows that the toad had a much darker position than the frog. The toad was regarded as an emissary of the 'Evil One' in 16^th century England, and was often burned to death as a result. In Norway, opinions were much the same, with the toad being regarded as evil, or as the representation of evil, with unfortunate frogs and toads being thrown onto the bonfire which people had danced around and jumped over on St. John's Eve. Killing toads in this manner was believed to ward off evil spirits and trolls which were active on that night. 

In parts of Scandinavia, familiars were often associated with spirits of the land and nature. Fairies, dwarves, and other supernatural beings were believed to live within the bodies of animals. With the coming of Christianity, the practice of witchcraft went underground due to the assumption that any spirit, other than an angel, had to be a demon. During the witch trials, many domestic animals were killed due to their association with heretics and witches.

Shamanistic beliefs of animal familiars is that they are not physical beings, but are thought-forms or purely spiritual entities. They are said to travel astrally, serving as magical guardians against those who may try to psychically attack the shaman.

In 1318, Pope John XXII is said to have had nine alleged witches prosecuted for assorted magical crimes, including their contact with a familiar with the help of a polished glass. The Church made use of a collection of scriptures from the Old Testament involving familiars, although it is difficult to say what these Christian interpretations of the scriptures may have meant to the ancient Hebrews. The 'Witch of Endor' from the Old Testament (Samuel 28: 3-25) was often used as the foundation of the Church's opinion on familiars. There is, however, nothing within the original language to suggest that the woman in the story was actually a witch. The original script was translated from ba'alath ob, meaning 'mistress of the Ob', to Latin mulierem habentem pythonem, meaning 'a woman possessing an oracle spirit' which was, in the King James version, translated to mean 'possessing a familiar spirit.' The Hebrew word 'ob' was used in reference to sorcerers and necromancers who conjured the dead to answer their questions. The King James Bible translated this to 'familiaris', changing the meaning of the original scripture to that of a 'household servant'. This portrayed such spirits as being the personal servants of a witch or sorcerer. Literal translations of the Bible do not discuss familiars, dealing mainly with those that practice the arts of the occult. For example, the Book of Deuteronomy 18:10-11 tells us to avoid keeping company with a 'fortuneteller, soothsayer, charmer, diviner, spell-caster, a spirit medium, or anyone who seeks oracles from the dead. The Book of Leviticu 20:27 encouraged strict punishment for anyone connected to the occult: 'A man or a woman who acts as a medium or fortuneteller shall be put to death by stoning.' The King James Bible simply replaced these original ideas with the use of the word 'witch'.

Queen Elizabeth, in 1563, declared that anyone proved to have invoked or conjured 'evill and wicked Sprites' would be punished, while King James, in 1604, expanded on this and was more specific, saying: That if any person or persons... shall use practice or exercise any Invocation or Conjuration of any evill and wicked Spirit, or shall consult convenant with entertaine employ feede or rewarde any evill or wicked Spirit (will be punished). Court officials were often keen to convict those that were a part of the occult, often coercing the accused in order to shape the evidence in such a way that made it look as though the suspect was in clear violation of the law. 

 

The Malleus Maleficarum (1486), the witch inquisitor's handbook, gives no actual instruction concerning the familiar in the questioning and trial of a witch. This book does,however, mention familiars, stating that an animal familiar 'always works with her (witch) in everything.' It also cautions inquisitors to never leave the suspect witch alone because the Devil 'will cause her to kill herself', possibly accomplishing this through a familiar. If, during these trials, so much as a fly came in through the window during the questioning of a witch, it was believed to be a familiar. 

 Matthew Hopkins, the Witch Finder General (Original)

 

The main period for the focus of witches having relationships with animal figures was between 1550 and 1650, with Matthew Hopkins, the notorious 'Witch Finder General', using the possession of a familiar as primary evidence to prove a suspect guilty of witchcraft. As a result, many were executed simply for their ownership of an animal, along with their having a strange mark, which was believed to be a nipple used to feed their familiar. The courts often exchanged the term 'familiar spirit' with words such as 'imp', 'devil', and 'demon', so it is not difficult to understand how the oldest beliefs of familiars mutated under the direction of such religious authority.

Despite the widespread belief in familiars, the Salem witch trials gives very few accounts of animal familiars. In 1692, John Bradstreet was accused of 'inciting a dog to afflict.' As a result, the dog was tried and hanged for being a witch.

The Familiar Spirit (Original)

Descriptions of familiar spirits by witches or cunning folk who had been accused of witchcraft had similar characteristics. Despite the supposed supernatural nature of these familiars, the accounts of them are surprisingly ordinary. They often had normal and affectionate names. For example, Bessie Dunlop, one cunning woman accused of witchcraft named her familiar Tom Reid. Another accused witch, the 17^th century Jane Wellis from Huntingdonshire named her familiars Grizell and Gridigut. There are accounts telling us that the familiar often arrived with its name already established, meaning that the witch was not believed to have named the familiar. Matthew Hopkins declared that 'no mortall could invent' such names, which, to him, was suggestive of something diabolical. This indication fits with the beliefs of the time, with many from this era believing that all spirits possessed names, therefore it only made sense that familiars had their own exclusive names. Familiars were described by those that had supposedly witnessed them as clearly defined, three-dimensional....forms, vivid with colour and animated with movement and sound. With their later descriptions of their smoky, undefined forms, they sound more like ghosts. 

 

They were often believed to be malevolent when working for a witch, while they were believed to be benevolent when working for cunning folk, with a witch's familiar being identified as a demon, while the latter are often classified as fairies. A familiar's main purpose is to protect and serve the witch, as they inherit their new skills. Once the relationship between witch and familiar was established, the familiar actually served a variety of purposes. Witch trials show that familiars were believed to inflict injury and to cause death to both animals and humans. They were believed to haunt and harass people, although this was limited to verbally abusing, jeering and/or threatening the victim.

In accounts taken from British cases, witches and cunning folk generally had three different ways in which a familiar would come to them. The first was that the familiar would impulsively appear in front of the individual, inside or outside of the home. For example, Joan Prentice, interrogated for witchcraft in 1589, claimed that she was 'alone in her chamber, and sitting upon a low stool preparing herself to bedward,' when her familiar first manifested before her. A cunning woman from Cornwall, Anne Jeffries, claimed that her familiar appeared when she was 'knitting in an arbour in our garden.'

The second common appearance of the familiar to a magical practitioner was that they were gifted to them, sometimes by a family member or, supposedly, by a powerful spirit. Margaret Ley from Liverpool, questioned in relation to witchcraft in 1667, claimed that her familiar was given to her by her mother when she died. Another example comes from Joan Willimot, a Leicestershire cunning woman questioned in 1618. Willimot claimed that a mysterious figure, who she referred to only as her 'master', 'willed her to open her mouth and he would blow into her a fairy which should do her good. And that she open her mouth, and that presently after blowing, there came out of her mouth a spirit which stood upon the ground in the shape and form of a woman.' Other examples include a trial that took place in Chelmsford in 1556, where the accused confessed to possessing a white-spotted cat called Satan which was passed down from witch to witch and a trial in 1582, where a 12 year old girl admitted to receiving her familiar, a cat, from her grandmother, which she later gave away to a woman named Agnes Waterhouse.

 

In some accounts, witches or cunning folk are said to have experienced difficulties in the practise of their magic until a familiar appeared to them and offered them aid. It has been noted by Emma Wilby, historian and author of Cunning Folk and Familiar Spirits, that 'their problems... were primarily rooted in the struggle for physical survival – the lack of food or money, bereavement, sickness, loss of livelihood and so on.' The familiar apparently offered them a way out of this, solving their problems by gifting them with magical powers. Some lore states that a witch received their familiar following their initiation into the Witches' sect Witches and cunning folk often made some form of pact or agreement with their familiar. This would state a length of time for which the familiar remained with the practitioner, varying between weeks and, in some cases, decades. It seems common for witches and cunning folk to summon their familiar when they were in need of assistance, although the methods varied. Joan Cunny from Essex, in 1589, claimed that she had to kneel within a circle and pray to Satan for her familiar to manifest, while, in 1653, the cunning woman, Anne Bodenham, from Wiltshire claimed that she could summon her familiars by reading books. However, in some accounts familiars are said to have had the ability to manifest even when they were unwanted or when they had not been summoned. Elizabeth Chandler, a witch from Huntingsonshire, claimed in 1646 that she had no control over her two familiars, Beelzebub and Trullibub, and is said to have prayed to God that He would 'deliver her therefrom.'

As I have noted briefly above, witches were believed to feed or nourish their familiar. It was believed that the familiar needed the nourishment of breast milk or blood, although some witches are reported to have fed their familiar on bread and milk. However, most theories of the time suggested that a familiar often craved and required blood in order to maintain a physical body, as they were believed to be spirits. While familiars were believed to take blood straight from the witch, witches were sometimes believed to provide other sources to feed the craving of their familiar. In 1324, Alice Kyteler from Kilkenny, Ireland, who was convicted as being a witch, confessed that she sacrificed red cocks to her familiar, providing it with a source of blood. Familiars, according to trial transcriptions, obtained blood by pricking the witches body and sucking out the blood. This was believed to leave a mark, which was identified as the 'witch's mark' or 'devil's mark' by witch hunters. This mark could be anything from a bruise, mole, or any skin abnormality. Most often accused were the elderly, who often had the common dark spots which we attribute to old age. These marks were believed to be insensitive to pain caused by a pin or needle pushed into them.

Outside of the witch trials, it was believed that some magicians and village healers were aided by more benevolent familiars which could diagnose illnesses and sources of bewitchment. They were also used to divine and find lost objects and treasures. During rituals, magicians would conjure these spirits, locking them into bottles, rings and stones which were sometimes sold as charms, with the magician claiming that they would ensure success in whatever the buyer sought. This was not technically illegal, with England's Witchcraft Act of 1604 specifically outlawing evil and wicked spirits.

Modern witches have their own views on familiars and no longer accept the Judeo-Christian opinion of the familiar as either accurate or valid. Familiars are now more often perceived in much the same way as some American Indians view animal guides or power animals. They are now seen as messengers that move between the mortal and spirit realm, healers and powerful allies to those with whom they form a relationship which are gifted to a witch by the Great Spirit. There are, to a modern witch, essentially three types of familiar spirit: the physical, the astral and the artificial. A physical familiar is a pet or animal to which you feel drawn. An astral familiar is considered to be an entity which exists within the spiritual realm. The artificial familiar is one that is created by the practitioner with the use of magic. In modern times, the familiar assists the witch by carrying energy for the use of healing, communicating and spell casting. They are also believed to protect both the home and personal property. Familiars can also defend a witch during astral projection and dream-work, as well as carrying information to or from the spiritual realm.

 

In conclusion, familiars have evolved and changed through the years and, in modern times, have pretty much come full circle back to the beliefs of the ancients. Familiars have been considered to be guides and helpers, aiding a witch, magician or shaman in the practice of their magic. They are said to take many forms, often as animals, with the favourites being cats. They are, however, not limited to being only animals, with many beliefs stating that the familiar is a spirit capable of living within the body of an animal or creature. They can be a readily evolved spirit or can be created through the use of magic by a witch. The evolution of Christianity saw familiars condemned, linking them to demons and the Devil and giving a primary source of evidence against an accused witch. While they have often been linked with evil, cunning folk were also said to possess benevolent familiars which could aid a person with any matter. In this case, the spirit was sometimes bottled and sold. Modern times, however, bring us back to the belief that the familiar exists to protect and aid it's witch by carrying the additional energy needed during healing, communication with other worlds and spell-casting. It is now believed that the familiar spirit connects us to the spirits of nature, much like the beliefs of our ancestors before us.

Next time: We'll take a closer look at the origins of witchcraft.

Tir na nOg and The Tuatha De Danann

Tir na nOg

In Irish mythology, Tir na nOg, or 'Land of the Young', is best known as the Otherworld and was visited by some of Ireland's greatest heroes. This is where the Tuatha De Danann settled when they were driven from Ireland's surface. It's location is said to be on an island to to far west, and is a place that is said to be beyond the edges of the map.    

The Entrance to Tir na nOg (Original)

Tir na nOg is similar to some of Ireland's other mythical places, including Mag Mell and Ablach.  It also bears similarity with the Greek Elysium and the Norse Valhalla, although there are also important differences.  Popular beliefs say that Tir na nOg was the afterlife for heroes who had died, but it was more a paradise inhabited by  preternatural beings, with the very fortunate few sailors and adventurers stumbling across it on their travels.  In this paradise there was no sickness and no death, instead being a place of everlasting life and beauty.

One Irish myth portrays Tir na nOg, telling the story of Oisin, who became one of the few mortals to live in Tir na nOg: 

Oisin in Tir na nOg
One day Oisin and his father, Finn Mac Cumhail, were out hunting, a magnificent white horse came galloping towards them.  On the horse was a beautiful girl with long, flowing, golden hair which lay across the horse's back.  As the horse reach Oisis' side, the girl stopped the horse, saying to Oisin, ''I am Niamh Cinn Oir.  I have come from Tir na nOg to take you back with me so you can be my husband.

Oisin and Niamh riding to Tir na nOg (Original)

She described Tir na nOg, telling Oisin that it was the land of eternal youth.  Here he could have  infinite sheep and cattle; he could be in command of warriors; he would live forever.  Of course, Oisin agreed to go with Niamh after she told him of this paradise where he could be powerful and immortal.  

They rode of days and nights, crossing lands and seas, never stopping until they reached Tir na nOg.  Niamh's parents, the King and Queen, welcomed Oisin as their future son-in-law.  Oisin saw that everyone who lived in the golden land of Tir na nOg were young and strong, and Oisin was amazed by everything that he saw.  After staying here for three months, Oisin decided to visit his father and friends in Ireland.  Niamh said that he could go, however, she also warned him not to eat the food that he should not set foot of Irish soil.

When Oisin got back to Ireland, he could find no trace of his father or friends.  The great fortresses of Fianna were no more than earthen mounds.  Unfortunately for Oisin, he did not understand that time moved differently in Tir na nOg.  For every month that passed in Tir na nOg, one-hundred years passed in Ireland, and Oisin discovered that he had been absent from his homeland for three-hundred years.

One day, while Oisin rode through County Sligo, he saw a group of men struggling to lift a heavy rock.  To Oisin, these men seemed small and weak, so he offered to help them.  He leaned down from he horse to move the rock, but the strain of this broke the girth of the saddle and Oisin fell to the ground, with the horse galloping off into the distance and disappearing.  Oisin quickly aged, turning into an old, old man.  He never saw Niamh Cinn Oir or Tir na nOg again, instead living out the rest of his life in Ireland, friendless and alone.

 Tuatha De Danann

The Tuatha Dé Danann were known throughout ancient Ireland and were believed to be the people of the Goddess Danu or Dana, who is also known as mother. According to D'Arbois de Jubainville, the Tuatha Dé Danann were known as 'the People of the god whose mother was called Dana'. The Goddess Dana was known as Danand in middle Irish times. Throughout history, Danu became known as Brigit, who was adopted into Christianity as a saint. The Annals of the Four Masters tells us that the Tuatha Dé Danann ruled Ireland from 1897BC to 1700BC.

The Goddess Danu (Original)

M3303.1 [Which equals 1897, by subtracting 3303 from 5200]: The tenth year of the reign of Enochaidh, son of Erc; and this was the last year of his reign, for the Tuatha Dé Dananns came to invade Ireland against the Firbolgs; and they gave battle to each other at Magh Tuireadh, in Conmaicne Cuile Toladh, in Connaught, so that the King Eochaidh, son of Erc, was killed, by the three sons of Neimhidh, son of Badhrai, of the Tuatha De Dananns; Ceasarb, Luamh, and Luachra, their names. The Firbolgs were vanquished and slaughtered in this battle. Moreover, the hand of Nuadhat, son of Eochaidh, son of Edarlamh (the king who was over the Tuatha Dé Dananns), was cut off in the same battle. 
 

The Firbolgs, ruled Ireland for 37 years, according to the Annals of the Four Masters, and for 80 years according to the 16^th century scholar O'Flaherty, before the arrival of the Tuatha Dé Danann

These new invaders were considered a formidable enemy, led by Nuadhat-Airgetlamh, or Nuad of

the Silver Hand. Apparently they arrived on the first day of Beltaine, now known as May Day, landing to the north-west of Connacht. Upon landing, some say that the Tuatha proceeded to burn their own fleet, rendering all retreat impossible. According to superstition, the Tuatha Dé Danann were skilled in magic, making themselves invisible to the current inhabitants of Ireland until they had penetrated into the very heart of the country. 

The Tuatha De Danann (Original)

 

The current occupants apparently struggled to explain the arrival of these strangers, who they said that they came 'out of nowhere' or 'out of the heavens.' Eachaid Ua Flainn, a poet who died in 985AD wrote: They had no vessels... No one really knows whether it was over the heavens, or out of the heavens, or out of the earth that they came. Were they demons of the devil...were they men?
 

Lady Gregory, in her book Gods and Fighting Men, states: 'It was in a mist the Tuatha de Danann, the people of the gods of Dana, or as some called them, the Men of Dea, came through the air and the high air to Ireland.' So, the Tuatha Dé Danann probably landed under the cover of fog, mist, or, possibly, smoke. This could be ascribed the the Tuatha burning their ships upon landing on the shores of Ireland. Others have said that they arrived, not on ships, but on dark clouds, leading the people to believe that they had descended from heaven. This has also led some to believe that the Tuatha Dé Danann are actually ancient aliens, but I find this explanation to be unlikely, believing it is more likely that this 'dark cloud' was probably the smoke of their burning ships.

Some sources tell us that the Tuatha Dé Danann came from the north and some say that they came from the west, although there has been some debate on where they originated. One theory is that they originally came from Denmark. According to the traditions of the Tuatha Dé Danann, they spent seven years in the north of Scotland before travelling to Ireland, staying in places named Dobhar and Lardahar. Before Scotland, they are said to have spend some time in Lochlonn, which has been linked with Denmark. In modern Gaelic, Lochlainn refers to Denmark and it is interesting that the Danes call their country Danmark, or the land of the Dan people. However, prior to their settling in Scandinavia or Denmark, the Tuatha are said to have come from a place called Achaia. There is a region called Achaiyah in Syria, which has been called the homeland of The Annage, or the 'Shining Ones', who were great teacher gods of the Sumerian tradition. Interestingly, the Tuatha Danann were tall and fair haired, appearing as 'shining-faced' sages. The Sumerians, who ruled the region from at least 4000BC, and the sudden rise of their culture, is still surrounded in mystery and was attributed by the Sumerians to the influence of their teacher gods. It is possible that a small group of these mysterious 'teachers', potentially the last of their kind, decided to pass their knowledge onto other tribes, working their way from Mesopotamia through Europe, maybe teaching the Greeks in the same manner that the Tuatha taught the Old Irish people. Others still say that they may have come from the region around the Danube River in Austria/ Germany due the the similarity of the names or, even, that they came from Atlantis, leaving only after it disappeared into the sea. There are yet other sources that tells us the Tuatha originally came from Greece: '...in ancient Greece... there lived a race of nomads known as the Pelasgians. Tribal in nature, they were seafarers who claimed to be born from the teeth of the Comic Snake Ophion, and the Great Goddess Danu.' The Pelasgians ruled Greece until the coming of Achaeans in 1900BC, who tried to destroy the Pelasgian people but failed. Although they were eventually accepted by Achaeans, not all wished to stay in Greece. This group, who are said to have later called themselves the Tuatha Dé Danann, migrated north to Denmark, later coming to Ireland. This seems to be the most acceptable theory for the Tuatha's origin. 
 

The Book of Dun Cow tells us 'wise men do not know the origin of the Tuatha Dé Danann, but that it seems likely to them that they came from heaven, on account of their intelligence and for the excellence of their knowledge.' According to one source, the earliest reference to the Tuatha Dé Danann states that 'after they were banished from heaven because of their knowledge, they descended on Ireland in a cloud of mist.' This shows that, in the face of new religions such as Christianity, the skills and knowledge of the Tuatha Dé Danann could only have been learnt in heaven. The only way to explain their living on earth could, therefore, only be attributed to their banishment from heaven.

Lia Fail (Original)

In Scandinavia, the Tuatha settled in four cities where they are said to have learnt their many skills. '...great Falias, and shining Gorias, and Finias, and rich Murias that lay to the south.' In these cities there were four wise men who taught the skills, knowledge and wisdom that the Tuatha brought to Ireland. There was 'Senias in Murias; and Arias, the fair-haired poet, in Finias; and Urias of the noble nature in Gorias; and Morias in Falias itself. The Tuatha supposedly brought four treasures from those four cities: 'a Stone of Virtue from Falias, that was called the Lia Fail, the Stone of Destiny; and from Gorias they brought a Sword of Nuada, which always inflicted a mortal blow upon the enemy; and from Finias a Spear of Victory; and from Murias the fourth treasure, the Cauldron of Dagda that no company ever went away from unsatisfied.'

These treasures, along with their appearance in Ireland 'out of nowhere' led many to believe that the Tuatha Dé Danann were great sorcerers, described in the Book of Dun Cow and the Book of Leinster as 'gods and not-gods'. Later scribes found some difficulty in deciding whether the Tuatha Dé Dananns were a mythical race or whether they actually existed. In a poem written by the 10^th century poet Eochaid O'Flynn, this indecision becomes apparent. In this poem, preserved in the Book of Ballymote, O'Flynn writes:

Though they came to learned Erinn

Without buoyant, adventurous ships,

No man in creation knew

Whether they were of the earth or of the sky.

If they were diabolical demons,

They came from that woeful expulsion;

If they were of a race of tribes and nations,

If they were human, they were of the race of Beothach.

In this same poem, O'Flynn tells us that the Tuatha were hosts of siabra, which is an Old Irish word meaning fairies, sprites, or ghosts. The Irish people believed so strongly in the Tuatha Dé Danann and their magical skills that Christian transcribers 'could not deny their existence as a non-human race of intelligent beings'. However, these transcribers could not allow themselves to believe that the Tuatha Dé Danann were a good, kind race and frequently misinterpreted them, placing them in a category with evil demons. This is illustrated in the story of the 'Sick-bed of Cuchulainn: So that this was a vision to Cuchulainn of being stricken by the people of the Sid [the Tuatha Dé Danann]: for the demoniac power was great before the faith; and such was its greatness that the demons used to fight bodily against mortals, and they used to show them delights and secrets of how they would be in immortality. It was thus they used to be believed in. So it is to such phantoms the ignorant apply the names of Side and Aes Side.

As I have already said, Nuada was the leader and king of the Tuatha, but there were also chiefs of the Tuatha – Ogma, brother of Nuada, who taught writing; Diancecht, a healer; Neit, 'a god of battle', Credenus, the craftsman; and Goibniu, the Smith. It is also said that there were many great women among them: Badb, 'a battle goddess; Macha, 'whose mast-feeding was the heads of men killed in battle'; and the Morrigu, the 'Crow of Battle'. There was also Eadon, 'the nurse of poets'; Brigit, a poet, who is said to have been worshipped by other poets because she was great and noble. Brigit was also a healer and a smith, said to have made the first whistle enabling them to call one another through the night. Her name was believed to mean 'a fiery arrow'. Finally there was Dana, Mother of the Gods, and greatest of them all.

The Firbolgs, taken by surprise, failed to attack until the Tuatha had marched almost across Ireland. They are said to have fought their first battle 'on the plain of Moyturey, near the shore of Lough Corrib, in part of the ancient territory of Partry.' Here the Firbolgs were overthrown and slaughtered. 
 

There is, however, another version of events, according to an ancient Irish manuscript mentioned in The History of Ireland, Ancient and Modern, which is apparently more consistent with later history. According to this account, 'the battle of Southern Moyturey resulted in a compromise rather than in such defeat...' The Firbolg king was killed during the battle, but another leader, Srang, was chosen. After some negotiation, the Tuatha Dé Dananns and the Firbolgs agreed to split the land, with the Firbolgs taking Connaught, and the Tuatha Dé Dananns taking the remaining land. This second account seems to make sense, due to the 'firm footing which we find these people all along holding  in Ireland, and for their position at the Milesian epoch, when they were at first received as allies by the invaders, and were afterwards, for centuries, able to resist the war.'

As the Annals of the Four Masters tells us, Nuadhat lost his hand during the battle. Apparently a silver hand was later made for him by Credne Cerd and fitted by the physician Diencecht. Diencecht's son, Miach, apparently improved on this work and, according to legend, infused 'feeling and motion into every joint of the artificial hand as if it had been a natural one.' This is how Nuadhat the Silver Hand came by his name. This description of the crafting, fitting and improvement of Nuadhat's artificial hand can be taken as an example of the surgical and mechanical skills believed to be possessed by the Tuatha Dé Danann. 
 

Apparently this feat took seven years to achieve and, during this time, a temporary king was elected as the Tuatha Dé Danann had a law stating that a man had to be in perfect shape if he was to be king. The temporary king, Breas, had a Fomorian father and a mother born of the Tuatha De Danann. He was supposedly chosen because of this.

Once the seven years were up, Nuadhat resumed his role as king. However, during the 20^th year of his reign, a battle was fought against the Fomorians, said to be a race of giants, at a place called Northern Moyturey, or Moyturey of the Fomorians. This battle was apparently instigated and encouraged by Breas and, possibly, aided by Firbolg refugees. Nuadhat was apparently killed by 'Balor 'of the mighty blows', the leader of the Fomorians, who is described in old traditions as 'a monster both in barbarity and strength, and as having but one eye.' Balor was also killed during this battle by a stone thrown by his daughter's son, Lugh Lamhfhada, as revenge for his crimes. 
 

Lugh Lamhfhada, who killed Balor, succeeded Nuadhar as king, and, due to his connections to both the Fomorians, through his mother, and Tuatha Dé Danann, through his father, peace existed between the two races. He reigned for forty years, during which he established the public games, or fair, of the hill of Tailltean to commemorate his foster-mother, Taillte, who had married a Tuatha Dé Danann chief and fostered an infant named Lewy. These games continued until the 12^th century, held on 1^st August; a day which is still called Lugh's fair, during which these traditions are still preserved. The Tuatha Dé Dananns ruled for 197 years, until 1700BC. 
 

When the Sons of Mil, the ancestors of the Irish, also known as the Milesians, came to Ireland, they found the Tuatha Dé Danann in full possession of Ireland. The Milesians, named after Milesius, the King of Spain, arrived in Ireland, according to the Annals of the Four Masters, in 1700BC. Bardic legends say that Ireland was made invisible to the Milesians through necromancy used by the Tuatha. However, when the Milesians landed and marched into Ireland, the Tuatha confessed that, with no standing army, they were not prepared to resist them. They are said to have told the Milesians that, 'if they [the Milesians] again embarked, and could make good a landing according to the rules of war, the country should be theirs.' So the Milesians went back out to sea, withdrawing 'the distance of nine waves' away from the shore. Upon doing so, a huge storm began, believed to have been raised by the Tuatha, scattering the Milesian fleet, with many ships being lost completely. However, the Milesians managed to come back. The Annals of the Four Masters tells us: The fleet of the sons of Milidh came to Ireland at the end of this year, to take it from the Tuatha Dé Dananns; and they fought the battle of Sliabh Mis with them on the third day after landing. In this battle fell Scota, the daughter of Pharaoh, wife of Milidh; and the grave of Scota is to be seen between Sliabh Mis and the sea. Therein also fell Fas, the wife of Un, son of Uige, from whom is named Gleann Faisi. After this the sons of Milidh fought a battle at Tailtinn, against the three kings of the Tuatha Dé Dananns, Mac Cuill, Mac Ceacht, and Mac Greine. The battle lasted for a long time, until Mac Ceacht fell by Eiremhon, Mac Cuill by Eimhear, and Mac Greine by Amhergin.

Their three queens were also slain; Eire by Suirghe, Fodhla by Edan, and Banba by Caicher. The battle was at length gained against the Tuatha Dé Dananns, and they were slaughtered wherever they were overtaken. 
 

After the battles were won, the Milesians had possession of Ireland, forming alliances with the Firbolgs, who were allowed to keep certain territories, and with other races living within Ireland. There are many different legends about what happened to the Tuatha Dé Danann after their defeat. Some believe that the land was divided, with the underground being given to the Tuatha Dé Danann, where others say that the Goddess Danu sent them to live in Tir na nOg, finding underground homes for those that didn't want to leave Ireland.

Another legend says that the Tuatha did not even fight the Milesians because their skill in prophecy told them of the impending battle and consequent loss of their country. This led to the supposed creation of future kingdoms prepared by the Tuatha beneath various hills to which they fled when the Milesians arrived. In this case, legend holds that the Tuatha Dé Danann became the fairy folk of Ireland, also known as the Sidhe (pronounced 'Shee'). 'Assuming invisibility, with the power of at any time reappearing in a human-like form before the children of the Sons of Mil, the People of the Goddess Danu became and are the Fairy-Folk, the Sidhe of Irish mythology and romance.'

Sons of Mil (Original)

The Sons of Mil, who believed that the Tuatha Dé Dananns were sorcerers, blamed the Tuatha when their crops failed and when their cows failed to produce milk. This, apparently, forced them to treat with the Tuatha. Once this treaty was made, the Sons of Mil were once again able to grow their crops and their cows again began to produce milk. 
 

Others say that where the Milesians were going to destroy the Tuatha Dé Danann, they gradually became fascinated and captivated by them because they were 'skilled in all magic, and excellent in all the arts as builders, poets, and musicians.' They allowed the Tuatha Dé Danann to remain in Ireland where they built forts at which 'they held high festival with music and singing and the chant of the bards.' Apparently the horses reared by the Tuatha could not be matched or bettered by any found elsewhere in the world: '...fleet as the wind, with the arched neck and broad chest and the quivering nostril, and the large eye that showed they were made of fire and flame, and not of dull, heavy earth.' These horses were stabled in 'the great caves of the hills...' This has led people to call the Tuatha Dé Danann the 'cave fairies'.

The palaces to which the Tuatha Dé Danann are said to have fled to were hidden in the depths of the earth. The Dagda, High King of the Tuatha Dé Danann controlled the distribution of these palaces – giving one to Lugh, the Tuatha god of the sun, and keeping two for himself – Brug na Boinne or Castle of the Bayne, due to its location near the River Boyne, and Sid or Brug Maic ind Oc, meaning Enchanted Palace or Castle of the Son of the Young. The most enchanted was Maic ind Oc, which contained three trees which always bore fruit, a vessel full of excellent drink, and two pigs – one alive and the other cooked and ready to eat at any time. It is said that no one living in this palace ever died.

Today, the Tuatha Dé Danann are more often referred to as 'the People of the Sidhe', or simply Sidhe. This is probably due to the popular belief that they are a subterranean race, who are sometimes described as gods of the earth or dei terreni, as in the Book of Armagh. It was believed that they controlled the ripening of the crops and the milk-giving of cows, and, because of this, the ancient Irish regularly worshipped them with sacrifices, much like they did with more modern fairies by the leaving of food at night for the fairies to eat. It is believed by some that in a just battle, the Tuatha Dé Danann will fight beside mortals and that, when they fight, they do so with lances of blue flame and shields of pure white.

In conclusion, the Tuatha Dé Danann are considered to be an Irish race of gods, known for their magical abilities and founded by the Goddess Danu or Dana, who invaded Ireland. They are said to have ruled for around 197 years from about 1897BC to 1700BC. They are then believed to have been defeated by the Milesians who drove them into underground palaces where they are still believed, by some, to live today. Their origin is unknown and is shrouded in mystery, although some say that they may have come from Denmark, Syria, Germany, or even Atlantis. The most plausible theory of their origin is that they came from Greece and were once a tribe known as the Pelasgians. They have been treated, by some, as mythical and by others as actual people. In popular legend they have become associated with the many fairies that are said to inhabit the Irish countryside. While their story has been much distorted over time, there is growing evidence that their story is rooted in fact. Remains from some of the battlefields have been discovered, which casts a whole new light on this magical people who once inhabited Ireland. Some scholars have also speculated that the Arthurian legends may have been based on the Tuatha Dé Danann. Whatever the truth may be, their legacy lives on in the fairies who are believed to still live in the many fairy mounds and raths that cover the Irish landscape.

Next time: Read about how fairy traditions have influence modern Ireland.