Mythology, Legend, and Folklore of the Sky - Part Four - The Weather

                    Know the enemy, know yourself;
                    your victory will never be endangered.
                    Know the ground, know the weather,
                    your victory will then be total.
                                Sun Tzu, The Art of War, c. 400-320 b.c.

Wherever you are in the world, the weather is always a topic of conversation.  In modern times we have a deeper understanding of the what and the why of weather phenomena and can, with some degree of accuracy, predict what is to come.  However, ancient cultures didn't have the same scientific approach to the weather that we have today.  Instead they created folktales and legends, mythological creatures and gods to explain the reasons behind the winds, the rain, storms, snow and the more extreme weather events that we still experience today.

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There are so many gods and goddesses associated with the weather.  It would be impossible to put them all into this post, so I'll just give you a few of the tales found in mythology and legend here.  Many more gods and goddess can be found here.

The Weather in Mythology and Legend

In mythology, legend and folklore there are an uncountable number of deities which have been attributed to the weather.  The ancient Greeks had no fewer than 40 gods and goddesses related to the weather and the climate and they are not the only culture to have a colourful collection of sky deities.

The Bird Whose Wings Made Wind - A North American Indian Tale

The Bird Whose Wings Made WInd

by Duke Sine

     An Indian family resided on the sea-shore. They had two sons, the oldest of whom was married and had a family of small children. They lived principally by fishing, and their favourite food was eels.
     Now it came to pass at a certain time that the weather was so stormy they could not fish. The wind blew fiercely night and day, and they were greatly reduced by hunger. Finally the old father told his boys to walk along the shore, and perhaps they might find a fish that had floated ashore, as   sometimes happened.
     So one of the young men started off to try his luck in this line; when he reached a point where the wind blew so fiercely that he could hardly stand against it, he saw the cause of all the trouble. At the end of the point there was a ledge of rocks, called Rocky Point, extending far out; at low water the rocks were separated from one another by the shallow water, but were nearly all covered when the tide was in. On the farthest rock a large bird, the storm-king, was standing, flapping his wings and    causing all the trouble by the wind he raised. The Indian planned to outwit him.
     He called to the big bird, and addressing him as "my grandfather," said, "Are you cold?" He answered, "No." The man replied, "You are cold; let me carry you ashore on my back." "Do so," was the answer. So the man waded over to the rock on which the bird was sitting, took him on his back, and carefully carried him from rock to rock, wading over the intervening spaces of shoal water. In going down the last rock, he stumbled on purpose, but pretended that it was an accident; and the poor old bird fell and broke one of his wings. The man seemed very sorry, and immediately proceeded to set the bone and bind up the wing. He then directed the old fellow to keep quiet and not move his wings until the wounded one healed. He now inquired if it pained him much, and was told that it did not. "Remain there and I will visit you again soon, and bring you some food."
     He now returned home, and found that the wind had all died away; there was a dead calm, so that before long they were supplied with a great abundance of food, as the eels were plenty and easily taken. But there can be too much even of a good thing. Calm weather continued for a succession of days, causing the salt water to be covered with a sort of scum. The Indians say it is the result of sickness and vomiting among the larger fish; this scum prevents the fishermen from seeing into the water, and consequently is adverse to eel-spearing.
     This took place on the occasion referred to, and so they sought for a remedy. The big bird was visited and his wing examined. It was sufficiently recovered to admit of motion, and he was told to keep both his wings going, but that the motion must be steady and gentle. This produced the desired effect.

Indra, God of Storms and War

In Hindu mythology, Indra, the storm god, was one of the three most important deities.  The Hindu cosmos was made up of three levels - the sky realm above, the earth realm below and in between was the realm of atmosphere, which belonged to Indra.  While the importance of Indra has faded over time, during the Vedic period (1750-500BC) this god was frequently invoked to bring rain and is said to be in constant battle with Vritra, the demon of drought.  According to one myth, the earth was scorched and dry because the rain clouds had been imprisoned by Vritra.  When Indra heard the pleas of the people, he descended from the sky and was offered Soma, his favourite drink.  Pleased with this offering, Indra asked the people how he could help.  On hearing their plight, the god decided to fight the demon and rescue the rains.  Using a divine thunderbolt, Indra struck Vritra between the shoulders, slicing the mountains on which Vritra lay open.  This separated heaven from earth and land from water, freeing the rains which had been stolen and hoarded by Vritra.


The Thunderbird

Thunderbird (Joho) - Kwakiutl

Native American Indian tradition gives us the Thunderbird, a magical form of the eagle and symbolising the power of nature at its most dramatic.  It was believed that the beating of a Thunderbird's wings stirred the wind and made the rumble of thunder and when it blinked, lightning was said to flash from its eyes while individual lightning blots were caused by the glow snakes it was believed to carry with it.  The Miami Indians called it Piasa, meaning 'devourer of man', and believed that it required sacrifices to keep it from attacking the whole community.  The Lakota gave it the name Wakjya, with wakha meaning 'sacred' and kjya meaning 'winged'.

Some tribes viewed the Thunderbird as an omen of war and would constructed war huts of cedar - sacred to the Thunderbird - before taking part in war dances to appease the Thunderbird and to ensure victory in battle.  They would smoke tobacco - also sacred to the Thunderbird - which was said to lift their souls to the heavens where they could meet with the Thunderbird in the spirit-journey, further preparing them for battle and ensuring victory.

Thunderbird by Frank Gruber

Other tribes saw the Thunderbird as a nature spirit and solar animal, whose eyes were the sun and gave the people night and day simply by opening or shutting its eyes.  To Northwestern tribes, the Thunderbird is known as the Skyamsen and the rain-bringer, and countless ceremonies are conducted to honor and appease it.  For more information on the Thunderbird, this is a great web page and this one is tremendously helpful.

The Origin of the Thunderbird - A Passamaquoddy Legend
    This is a legend of long, long ago times.  Two Indians desired to find the origin of thunder.  They travelled north and came to a high mountain.  These mountains performed magically.  They drew apart, back and forth, then closed together very quickly.
    One Indian said, 'I will leap through the cleft before it closes.  If I am caught, you continue to find the origin of thunder.”  The first one succeeded in going through the cleft before it closed, but the second one was caught and squashed.
    On the other side, the first Indian saw a large plain with a group of wigwams, and a number of Indians playing a ball game.  After a little while, these players said to each other, “It is time to go.” They disappeared into their wigwams to put on wings, and came out with their bows and arrows and flew away over the mountains to the south. This was how the Passamaquoddy Indian discovered the homes of the thunderbirds.
    The remaining old men of that tribe asked the Passamaquoddy Indian, “What do you want? Who are you?” He replied with the story of his mission.  The old men deliberated how they could help him.
    They decided to put the lone Indian into a large mortar, and they pounded him until all of his bones were broken.  They molded him into a new body with wings like thunderbird, and gave him a bow and some arrows and sent him away in flight.  They warned him not to fly close to trees, as he would fly so fast he could not stop in time to avoid them, and he would be killed.
    The lone Indian could not reach his home because the huge enemy bird, Wochowsen, at that time made such a damaging wind.  Thunderbird is an Indian and he or his lightning would never harm another Indian. But Wochowsen, great bird from the south, tried hard to rival Thunderbird.  So Passamaquoddies feared Wochowsen, whose wings Glooscap once had broken, because he used too much power.
    A result was that for a long time air became stagnant, the sea was full of slime, and all of the fish died.  But Glooscap saw what was happening to his people and repaired the wings of Wochowsen to the extent of controlling and alternating strong winds with calm.
    Legend tells us this is how the new Passamaquoddy thunderbird, the lone Indian who passed through the cleft, in time became the great and powerful Thunderbird, who always has kept a watchful eye upon the good Indians.

Inkanyamba by Kate Rowland

The Rainbow Bridge in Richard Wagner’s Das Rheingold, 

directed by Otto Schenk (1990)

Kormt and Ormt and the Kerlaugs twain
Shall Thor each day wade through,
(When dooms to give he forth shall go
To the ash-tree Yggdrasil;)
For heaven's bridge burns all in flame,
And the sacred waters seethe.
                    - Poetic Edda

In Norse legend, the rainbow is a sacred and well known symbol.  It is referred to as Asabru, meaning 'Bridge of Gods' or, commonly Bifrost, the Rainbow Bridge, and is the connection between Midgard (the realm of humankind) and Asgard (the realm of the Gods).  The Rainbow Bridge was created with fire, water, and air.
 
'Now snatch'd by harpies to the dreary coast,
Sunk is the hero, and his glory lost...'

In Greek mythology we find the Harpies, daughters of Electra and Thaumas, whose names are usually given as Aello, Calaeno, Ocypete, and Podarge.  The Harpies, whose name means 'snatchers' in Greek, are depicted as winged women or as monstrous, clawed women.  They personify the storm winds and, in mythology, they are often found with other deities of the wind and air.

A medieval depiction of a harpy

Tawhiri, God of Wind and Storms - A Maori Tale

It happened that the brother's of Tawhiri agreed that their parents Rangi (the Sky) and Papa (the Earth) should be separated.  Tawhiri disagreed and was furious.  He hid himself in the sky and planned the perfect revenge.  From his place in the sky, Tawhiri sent thunderstorms and hurricanes to his brother Tane-mahute, the god of the forests.  The storms left destruction and devastation in their path.  Tawhiri sent storms across the oceans to punish his brother Tangaroa, the god of the sea and the storms made whirlpools and giant waves which upset the oceans.  He sent storms to his brothers Haurnia-tikitiki and Rongo-ma-tane, the gods of food, but they were protected by the Earth mother and were unharmed.  Tu-matauenga, the final brother, withstood the winds and rains of the storm.  He was the god of fierce humans.  Tawhiri went on to have thirteen cloud children who lived in the sky.  Some were dark and stormy, while others were light and puffy.  He also became the father of rain, mist, and fog.

In the mythology of Hawaii there are four goddesses associated with snow, called the Snow Maidens of Mauna Kea.  Always described with their white mantles, the goddesses are as follows:

• Lilinoe, sometimes known as the goddess of the mountain Haleakala.  She is said to have the power to stop the mountain from erupting and is also known as the goddess of dead fires and desolation.  'She sometimes clothed the long summit of the mountain with a glorious garment of snow several miles in length.'  In some legends Lilinoe is said to be the wife of Nana-Nuu, the great flood survivor.

• Waiau is another of the snow goddesses.  Unfortunately any legends about her are lost in time.  However, there is a like in one of the craters on the summit of a mountain which is called Waiau and it's possible that this lake is connected in some way with the Snow Maiden.

• Kaboupokane is said to have controlled the snows which fall on the desolate summits of the mountain Hualalai.  Again, there don't seem to be any surviving myths of legends containing this Snow Maiden.

• The best known is Poliahu, who loved the eastern cliffs of Hawaii and is often described wearing a mantle of pure white kapa.  And for this Snow Maiden, we have a suriviving myth of which I can relate to you.

Pele and the Snow Goddess - A Hawaiian Legend

Poliahu by Herb Kane 

Poliahu and her friends had come down Mauna Kea to a sloping hillside south of Hamakua.  Suddenly in their midst appeared a stranger of surpassing beauty.  Poliahu welcomed her and the races (race of sleds) were continued... Pele, the maiden of volcanic fires, was angered by the superiority of Poliahu.  The ground began to grow warm and Poliahu knew her enemy.
Pele threw off all disguise and called for the forces of fire to burst open the doors of the subterranean caverns of Mauna Kea.  Up toward the mountain she marshalled her fire-fountains.  Poliahu fled toward the summit.  The snow-mantle was seized by the outbursting lava and began to burn up.  Poliahu grasped the robe, dragging it away and carrying it with her.  Soon she regained strength and threw the mantle over the mountain.

Weather Lore: Fact or Fiction?

Weather Lore can be traced back over thousands of years.  Farmers and sailors were and are dependent on the weather, and for good reason.  Their very survival is at stake.  Doubtless, we've looked up at the sky many a time, trying to discern the signs of what may lay ahead and this action has probably occurred since the first men walked the earth. 
The following weather rhymes  have been handed down from generation to generation and have science to back them up. 

Red sky at night, sailor's/ shepherd's delight.
Red sky in the morning sailor's/ shepherd's warning.

This rhyme goes all the way back to the last quarter of the 1st century where, in Matthew XVI: 2-3, it says - When in evening, ye say, it will be fair weather: For sky is red.  And in the morning, it will be foul weather today; for the sky is red and lowering.
A deep red sunset is often associated with high pressure and calm, dry weather.  It may indicate a prolonged time of good weather if the sky is red around the sun, which is more important than any clouds which may be around the sun. A red sky in the morning needs slightly different interpretation as it's not so much the sky, but the clouds coming from the west that might be lit red by the sun.  If this is the case, it may indicate rain that will arrive some time in the near future, hence the warning.

If a circle forms 'round the moon
'twill rain or snow soon.

A halo around the moon is caused by light refraction caused by the ice crystals of high clouds.  While these clouds carry no rain, they are known to predict low pressure and undesirable weather.

Rainbow to windward, foul fall the day;
Rainbow to leeward, rain runs away.If the wind is blowing from the direction of the rainbow it's possible that rain is on the way.  If the wind is blowing towards the rainbow, the rain has passed you - unless there's more on the way...

 

Mare's tails and mackerel scales
Make tall ships carry low sails.

Mares tales are high cirrus clouds which have been shaped by the wind and can indicate that poor weather is approaching.  Markerel scales are cirrocumulus clouds, which like mare's tails, are shaped by winds moving at high speed and shifting directions, are typical of approaching low pressure weather fronts.

That's it for now.  Next time: The mythology and legend natural disasters.


Useful Resources

http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/learning/wind/what-causes-wind
http://weatherbreak2.creighton.edu/?p=1635
http://markturnersmysteriousworld.blogspot.co.uk/2011/06/thunderbird-legends-sightings-evidence.html
https://plus.google.com/110520715489205190628/posts/hA1wFWkrPis
http://www.timothystephany.com/thunderbird.html
http://www.mythencyclopedia.com/Go-Hi/Hinduism-and-Mythology.html
http://www.ancientindia.co.uk/staff/resources/background/bg32/bg32pdf.pdf
http://www.windows2universe.org/mythology/planets/Earth/weather_myths.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospel_of_Matthew#CITEREFDaviesAllison2004
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-14087734
http://www.boatsafe.com/nauticalknowhow/weather_proverbs.htm
http://farmersalmanac.com/weather/2009/02/23/top-4-folklore-favorites/

Tales of te North American Indian by Stith Thompson
Dictionary of Nature Myths: Legends of Earth, Sea, and Sky by Tamra Andrews
The Encyclopedia of Religion and Nature: K-Z, Volume 2 - Edited by Bron Taylor
The Odyssey of Homer - Translated by Alexander Pope
Fabulous Creatures, Mythical Monsters, and Animal Power Symbols: A Handbook by Cassandra Eason
Hawaiian Legends of Volcanoes by William Westervelt.

Mythology, Legend and Folklore of the Sky - Part Three - The Stars

Long ago there lived a man and his three sons.  The man was fond of smoking tobacco in his pikka pipe.  As his sons grew, the man found them wives.  One day, the eldest son was invited by his wi'fe's parents to a wedding.  As he was their first son-in-law, he was treated like royalty and a feast was laid before him.  His wife's sister prepared a pikka for him only, being mischievous as she was, she filled it with salt instead of tobacco.  When the man blew into the pikka the salt crackled and caught fire and sparks flew into the air.  The son and his wife's family were awed and surprised.  They had never seen anything so beautiful.  The man continued to blow into the pikka and blew so hard that the sparks flew into the sky.  And here they stuck forever, becoming the stars.
        How the Stars Came Into Being - An Indian Folktale

Lake Mocan Stars

Photograph by Lincoln Harrison

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While the Sun and Moon have their leading roles in the myths and legengs of the cosmos, the stars have fascinated people for generations and have their place in the part of many folktales and stories.  Often appearing as deities, the stars appear as the heavens, the home of the gods, or as a path between the earth and another world.

The Milky Way

The Mayans beleved that the Milky Way was a path for the spirits to follow into the Underworld.  The Cherokee of Native America have the following legend which relates how the Milky Way was created.

     Long ago, there were not many stars.  It was a time when the people depended on corn for their food.  The people would place the corn inside a hollow stup and pount it with a long wooden pestle to make cornmeal, which they stored in large baskets.  Corn meal meant the people could still eat in the winter.
     One day an old man and his wife went to their basket for some cornmeal but the cornmeal was gone.  It had been stolen.  They noticed cornmeal scattered on the ground and, in the middle of the scattered cornmeal were giant dog prints, so large that the couple knew they couldn't possibly belong to an ordinary dog.  They alerted the other people of the village and it was decided that this must be a spirit dog, come from another world.  And the people decided they didn't want the spirit dog in their village.  So they gathered their drums and turtle shell rattles, and that night they hid to wait for the spirit dog to arrive.
     Late in the night the people heard a whirring sound, like the wings of many birds.  Looking up they saw a giant dog swooping down from the sky and watched as it landed amongst the baskets of cornmeal, which it proceeded to eat in great mouthfuls.  The people jumped up, beating their drums and shaking their rattles, making so much noise that it sounded like thunder.  The spirit dog turned and began to run, with the people close behind still making as much noise as they could.  The great dog ran to the top of a hill, where it leaped into the sky with cornmeal spilling from its mouth.  It ran across the night sky until it disappeared from sight.  However, the spilled cornmeal made a path across the sky, with each grain of cornmeal becoming a star.  The Cherokees call this pattern gi li; un sun stan un'yi, meaning 'the place where the dog ran'.
     And this is how the Milky Way came to be

The Origin of the MilkyWay

by Jacopo Tintoretto

Probably inspired by Greek mythology

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Another myth about the creation of the Milky Way comes from the Navajo people of Southwest America.

     When the world was new, the Holy People gathered around Black God to place the stars in the sky.  But progress was slow and Coyote became annoyed.  In irritation, he placed the red star Ma'iio, meaning 'the one who roams', in the south, hoping it would speed up the progress of the Holy People.  This star only appears for a short time in the year and symbolises trouble to the Navajo.  However, progress remained slow and Coyote grew more and more displeased.  Eventually he threw a bag of stars over his head and this became the Milky Way.

The Milky Way above a fir forest

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The Pleiades

The Pleiades is a name for a cluster of stars within the constellation of Taurus and has an extensive amount of mythology associated wth them.  Throughout the world they are known by many names.  In Japan the Pleiades are known as Subaru, in China they're called Kimah.  The Aztecs called them Tianquiztli, meaning market or gathering place.and the Navajo called the Pleiades the 'Sparkling Suns; or the 'Delyahey', the home of the 'Black God'.  However, probably their most well known name comes from Greece, who called these stars the Seven Sisters, who are as follows:

The Pleiades (1895) by Elihu Vedder

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Maia was the eldest of the seven Pleiades and the mother of Hermes by Zeus.
Electra was the mother of Dardanus and Iasiaon by Zeus.
Taygete was the mother of Lacedaemon, again by Zeus.
Alcyone was the mother of Hyrieus by Poseidon.
Celaeno was the mother of Lycus and Eurypylus by Poseidon.
Sterope (or Asterope) was the mother of Oenomais by Ares.
Merope, the youngest of the seven Pleiades.  In some myths she was wooed by Orion and in others she married Sisyphus, becoming mortal and, after giving Sisyphus several sons, faded away.

(C) Copyright Anglo-Australian Observatory / Royal Observatory, Edinburgh.
Permission required for use. Photography by David Malin.

After Zeus condemned Atlas to carry the Heavens upon his shoulders, Pleione and her seven daughters were travelling when they met Orion.  Orion fell in love with Pleione and her daughters.  In an effort to win their affections, he spent a great deal of time chasing them.  Years passed and still Orion chased them, until Zeus finally intervened by transforming the seven sisters into doves to give them the chance to escape Orion's advances.  The seven doves flew into the sky and here they transformed in the the cluster of stars which we call the Pleiades.

The Australian Aborigines also have a myth about the Seven Sisters, although it is vastly different from its Greek couterpart.

The Story of the Seven Sisters 

by Reggie Sultan

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The Story of the Seven Sisters and the Faithful Lovers

     'In the dream time, many ages ago, the cluster of stars which we now know as the Pleiades, or the Seven Sisters, were seven beautiful ice maidens. Their parents were a great rugged mountain whose dark head was hidden in the clouds, and an ice-cold stream that flowed from the snow-clad hills. The Seven Sisters wandered across the land, with their long hair flying behind them like storm clouds before the breeze. Their cheeks were flushed with the kiss of the sun, and in their eyes was hidden the soft, grey light of the dawn. So entrancing was their beauty, that all men loved them, but the maidens' affections were as cold as the stream which gave them birth, and they never turned aside in their wanderings to gladden the hearts of men.
     One day a man named Wurrunnah, by a cunning device, captured two of the maidens, and forced them to live with him, while their five sisters travelled to their home in the sky. When Wurrunnah discovered that the sisters whom he had captured were ice-maidens, whose beautiful tresses were like the icicles that drooped from the trees in winter time, he was disappointed. So he took them to a camp fire, and endeavored to melt the cold crystals from their beautiful limbs. But, as the ice melted, the water quenched the fire, and he succeeded only in dimming their icy brightness.
     The two sisters were very lonely and sad in their captivity, and longed for their home in the clear blue sky. When the shadow of night was over the land, they could see their five sisters beckoning to them as they twinkled afar off. One day Wurrunnah told them to gather pine-bark in the forest. After a short journey, they came to a great pine tree, and commenced to strip the bark from it. As they did so, the pine tree (which belonged to the same totem as the maidens) extended itself to the sky. The maidens took advantage of this friendly act, and climbed to the home of their sisters. But they never regained their original brightness, and that is the reason why there are five bright stars and two dim ones in the group of the Pleiades. The Seven Sisters have not forgotten the earth folk. When the snow falls softly they loose their wonderful tresses to the caress of the breeze, to remind us of their journey across our land.
     When the Seven Sisters were on earth, of all the men who loved them the Berai Berai, or two brothers, were the most faithful. When they hunted in the forest, or waited in the tall reeds for the wild ducks, they always brought the choicest morsels of the chase as an offering to the Sisters. When the maidens wandered far across the mountains, the Berai Berai followed them, but their love was not favored.
     When the maidens set out on their long journey to the sky, the Berai Berai were grieved, and said: "Long have we loved you and followed in your foot steps, O maidens of the dawn, and, when you have left us' we will hunt no more." And they laid aside their weapons and mourned for the maidens until the dark shadow of death fell upon them. When they died, the fairies pitied them, and placed them in the sky, where they could hear the Sisters singing. Thus were they happily rewarded for their constancy. On a starry night, you will see them listening to the song of the Seven Sisters. We call them Orion's Sword and Belt, but it is a happier thought to remember them as the faithful lovers who have listened to the song of the stars from the birth of time.'


The Big Dipper

The seven stars of the Ursa Major, also known as the Bug Dipper, are among the oldest recognized patterns in the sky.  To different cultures, they represent a variety of different things - a plow, wagon, camel, coffin, skunk and canoe amongst other things - and stories concerning this constellation are thought to date back to the Ice Age.  One of the most famous names for Ursa Major is the Great Bear; a name which may have originated 50,000 years ago during the existence of a Paleolithic bear cult.
The Great Bear is a well known term for Ursa Major and appears in many myths from around the world.

Ursa Major and Ursa Minor

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One such tale, called The Eternal Hunt, is shared by the Nova Scotian Micmac Indians and the St. Lawrence Iroquois Indians.  According to this tale, the quadrangle represents the bear which is being chased by seven hunters, with the three closest hunters being the handle of the dipper.  As autumn nears, the four furthest hunters disappear below the horizon, abandoning the hunt while the three closest hunters continue their pursuit.  The closest hunter is Robin, the second is Chickadee, who is said to carry the pot in which to cook the bear, and the third is Moose Bird.  During the autumn, the bear attempts to stand on two legs and Robin manages to wound the bear with an arrow.  The blood of the bear makes the leaves of the forest red and stains Robin, who is called Robin Redbreast from then on.  The bear is eaten and its skeleton continues to move through the sky on its back throughout winter until spring arrives, when a new bear leaves its den to resume to eternal hunt once more.

In Ovid's Metamorphoses is the story of Callisto and Arcus which has been attributed the Ursa Major and Ursa Minor:

Plate 19

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     Jupiter, god of the skies, once fell in love with a beautiful forest nymph called Callisto.  One day Jupiter's wife, Juno heard that Callisto had given Jupiter a son, Arcus, and she flew into a jealous rage.  The angry goddess came down from Mount Olympus and found Callisto as she played beneath the trees with a child.  When Callisto saw Juno, she cried out in fear for all knew of the rage of Juno.
'So you are the one to capitvate my husband.  Well, let us see how he likes you like this!' Juno shouted and, as Callisto begged for forgiveness, her skin grew a thick covering of fur and her hands and feet transformed into paws with sharp claws.  Her mouth was soon filled with huge, sharp teeth and her voice became a deep growl.  The beautiful Callisto had become a ferocious looking bear.
     But this transformation didn't change the love she had for her son.  Unfortunately, he was terrified of her and the nymphs of the forest took him away to keep him safe.  All feared the bear Callisto and she was hunted by man and his dogs.  She was forced to run and hide from man and beast for not only did she not know how to fight, she had no desire to learn how.  She tried to stay close to her son and, as Arcus walked in the woods, the great bear was never far behind.  But as time went on, she was hunted more and more and was forced deep into the forest, far away from her son.
     Many years into the future, Callisto came upon a hunter in the woods and, when he turned, she realized that this was her son, Arcus, grown into a man.  But Arcus still feared this great bear and he raised his bow intending to shoot the bear.  At that moment, Jupiter looked down from Mount Olympus and saw what was about to happen.  He swept down from the mountain, picked up Callisto and threw her into the sky.  Then he picked up Arcus and threw him into the sky where he transformed into a small bear beside his mother.
     And thereafter they became stars known as Great Bear and Little Bear.  But Juno was not pleased, and commanded Nepture, god of the sea, to forbid the bears from descending into the ocean as the other stars were want to do.  And this is why Great Bear and Little Bear are the only two constellations that never set below the horizon.

Orion

Orion

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Perhaps one of the most famous constellations is that of Orion the hunter, known in Celtic mythology as Cernunnos.  Orion is probably best known in Greek mythology, which tells us of how and why he became stars.  Orion bragged that he was so skilled that he would hunt down all the beasts of earth.  But Mother Earth wasn't pleased and sent the giant scorpion to destroy him.  In death both Orion and the scorpion were placed as stars on opposite sides of the sky where they cannot bother one another.  Even today Orion and the scorpion are never seen together in the night sky.  But just in case the scorpion decides to roam, the archer Sagittarius has his arrow on Antare, the heart of the scorpion.

The Scorpion

The Zodiac and the Stars

“Pallas (Minerva) watches over the Woolbearer (Aries);
Cytherea (Venus) over Taurus;
Phoebus (Apollo) the shapely Gemini;
You, Cyllenius (Mercury), over Cancer;
and Jupiter, you yourself rule Leo with the Mother of the Gods;
Virgo who bears ears of grain belongs to Ceres;
and the forged scales to Vulcan;
quarrelsome Scorpio clings to Mars;
Diana cherishes the hunting man part horse (Sagittarius);
and Vesta the contracted stars of Capricorn;
opposite Jupiter is Aquarius, the star of Juno;
and Neptune acknowledges his own Pisces in the upper air.”
- Manilius

 The Constellations with Astrological Signs of the Zodiac, Atlas Coelestis, 1660. Andreas Cellarius. British Museum, Creative Commons.

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The signs of the zodiac (derived from the Greek word meaning 'circle of animals') were developed between 3,200 and 500BC in Mesopotamia and were taken over by the Greeks in aournd 500BC.  As we know them today, the zodiac comprises of 12 signs: Aries the Ram, Taurus the Bull, Gemini the Twins, Cancer the Crab, Leo the Lion, Virgo the Maiden, Libra the Scales, Scorpio the Scorpion, Sagittarius the Centaur or Archer, Capricorn the 'Goat-horned' or the Sea Goat, Aquarius the Water Bearer and Pisces the Fish.  Early astrologers discovered that it took 12 lunar cycles or months for the sun to get back to its original position and identified 12 constellations which they linked with the progression of the seasons.  In Greece, each of these constellations has its own myth.  Here I'll give you the very basics of the myths which are linked to the zodiac signs but, if you want more information, this website is really helpful and perhaps I'll look at the Greek zodiac more closely in a future post.

• The first sign of the Greek zodiac is Aries, the Ram (March 21 - April 20) which is linked with the story of the Golden Ram who rescued two children, brother and sister, from being sacrificed to the gods. 

• Next comes Taurus, the Bull (April 21 - May 21), who is associated with the legend of Theseus and the Minotaur.

• Taurus is followed by Germini, the Twins (May 22 - June 21), which has been linked to the story of Castor and Polydeuces.

• Cancer, the Crab (June 22 - July 23) follows and is linked with the second labor of Hercules when he was tasked with killing Lerna Hydra, a water snake with 100 heads.

• The fifth is Leo, the Lion (July 24 - August 23), who is attributed to the first labor of Hercules, who had to capture the Nemean Lion.

• Virgo, the Maiden (August 24 - September 23) is associated with the tale of Demeter and her daughter Persephone.

• The stars of Libra, the Scales (September 24 - October 23) signifies justice, equity and balance.

• The eighth constellation of Scorpio, the Scorpion (October 24 - November 22) is linked with the story of Orion and the Scorpion which you can find above.

• Sagittarius, the Centaur or Archer is linked with the myth of Centaur who is named after Cheiron, the famous king of the centaurs.

• Capricorn, the 'goat-horned' or Sea Goat (December 22 - January 20) is linked with the birth of Zeus, father of the gods.

• The constellation of Aquarius, the Water Bearer is believed to be associated with the story of Ganymede.

• The final constellation of Pisces is thought to have been inspired by the story of Aphrodite.

While the Greek zodiac is the most well known, it is not the only zodiac.  The Chinese zodiac is believed to be a mixture of geomancy, horoscopes, astronomy and astrology.  Their lunar calendar dates from 2637BC and includes five cycles of twelve years, with a complete cycle lasting sixty years.  This website is an excellent source of information on the Chinese zodiac.  The Chinese also have a legend which tells us why the rat was the first animal of the years in the Chinese zodiac.

 Chinese Zodiac Cycle - InternChina

Original 

The Order of the Animals

     The Jade Emperor deemed that animals should be designated as calendar signs and the first twelve to arrive would be the chosen ones.  At the time, the cat and the rat were good friends. When news of the Emperor's decision reached them, cat told rat that they should arrive early to sign up but the cat was always late to rise.  The rat promised to wake his friend so they could go together.
     But on the morning of the choosing, the rat was too excited to remember his promise and went straight to the gathering place, forgetting to wake the cat.  On the way, the rat encountered many other animals which were much faster than him.  He didn't want to fall behind, so rat devised a cunning plan and made the ox carry him on the condition that he would sing to the ox.  So the ox carried the rat on his back and they were lucky enough to arrive first.  The ox was pleased, thinking he would be the first sign of the years.  But the sneaky rat slid in front of him and became the first animal of the Chinese zodiac.
     Unfortunately, the cat was so late that by the time he arrived, the selection was already over.  And that is why all animals appear behind the rat and also why the cat hates the rate so much that he will chase and try to kill it whenever their paths cross.

That's it for now.  Part four is about the mythology, folklore and legend of the weather.  Until next time.

Original

Useful Resources
http://www.firstpeople.us/FP-Html-Legends/HowTheMilkyWayCameToBe-Cherokee.html
http://www.astro.sunysb.edu/fwalter/AST101/pdf/orion.pdf
http://www.theoi.com/Gigante/GiganteOrion.html
http://www.aavso.org/myths-uma
http://www.ancient-wisdom.co.uk/zodiac.htm
https://www.astrologers.com/about/history
http://www.igreekmythology.com/greek-zodiac.html
http://www.travelchinaguide.com/intro/social_customs/zodiac/story.htm
http://www.crystalinks.com/pleiades.html
http://www.windows2universe.org/mythology/stars.html
Favorite Greek Myths by Mary Pope Osborne
Dictionary of Nature Myths: Legends of Earth, Sea and Sky by Tamra Andrews
Some Myths and Legends of the Australian Aborigines by W. J. Thomas

Mythology, Legend and Folklore of the Sky - Part One - The Aurora

Definition of Aurora: 'a natural electrical phenomenon characterised by the appearance of streamers of reddish or greenish light in the sky, especially near the northern or southern magnetic pole.  The effect is caused by the interaction of charged particles from the sun with atoms in the upper atmosphere.  In northern and southern regions it is respectively called aurora borealis or Northern Lights and aurora australis or Southern Lights.'

 Original

Ezekiel, a prophet of ancient Israel is believed to have written the following in the 6th century BC, '... a whirlwind came out of the north, a great cloud, and a fire infolding itself, and a brightness was about it, and out of the midst thereof as the colour of amber, out of the midst of fire.'  Aristotle, the Greek philosopher also observed the aurora in 344BC, which he compared with flames from known sources on Earth.  The term 'aurora borealis' was coined by Galileo Galilei in 1619 after Aurora, the Roman goddess of morning.  Galileo believed the aurora was cause by sunlight reflecting from the atmosphere.  The Romans called the aurora 'chasmate' meaning the mouths of celestial caves.

I have always been fascinated by the aurora and it seems I'm not alone.  This spectacular light displate has awed people the world over since prehistoric times and has inspired the creation of fantastical stories.  The oldest recorded sighting of the aurora comes from China in 2600BC: 'Fu-Pan, the mother of the Yellow Empire Shuan-Yuan, saw strong lightning moving around the star Su, which belongs to the constellation of Bei-Dou, and the light illuminated the whole area.'

1570AD A depiction of the Aurora Borealis

Original

The Aurora and the Souls of the Dead

Many aurora folktales centre around the same theme - spirits and souls of the dead.  In some parts of Greenland it was believed  the lights were the dead trying to communicate with their family and friends.  In eastern Greenland, the Eskimos believed that the Aurora's lights were the spirits of children dancing and their dancing is what causes the lights to swirl and stream and ribbon its way across the sky.  The Kwakiutl and Tlingit of Southeastern Alaska and the Salteaus Indians of eastern Canada, who had a similar belief, also see souls dancing.  And not all souls and spirits had to be human.  According to the Eskimos of the lower Yukon River believed that the dancing spirits were those of animals, especially the spirits of deer, seal, salmon and beluga.  In Labrador, the Inuits have the following story:

An etching/aquatint by Inuit artist Germaine Arnaktauyok, 

depicts the arsarnerit legend, in which Inuit ancestors play football with a walrus skull.

Original 

    The ends of the land and sea are bounded by an immense abyss, over which a narrow and dangerous pathway leads to the heavenly regions.  The shy is a great dome of hard material ached over the earth.  There is a hole in it through which the spirits pass to the true heavens.  Only the spirit of those who have died a voluntary or violent death, and the raven, have been over this pathway.  The spirits who live there light torches to guide the feet of new arrivals.  This is the light of the aurora.  They can be seen there feasting and playing football with a walrus skull.
    The whistling crackling noise which sometimes accompanies the aurora is the voices of these spirits trying to communicate with the people of the earth.  They should always be answered in a whispering  voice.  Youths and small boys dance to the aurora.  The heavenly spirits are called selamiut 'sky-dweller,' those who live in the sky.

Unfortunately, not all spirits were considered kind or benign.  To the Latvians, who saw the northern lights as the warrior souls of the dead fighting, a red aurora observed during the winter foretold disaster.  The Wisconsin Fox Indians, who had a very similar belief, interpreted the Aurora Borealis as the coming of war and disease, saw the restless ghosts of their slain foes attempting to rise up for vengeance.   

The Gods

It has been suggested that the reflections of the Valkyries' shields is the way in which the aurora borealis is represented in Norse mythology.  This seems fitting as the Valkyries were the assistants of Odin, the Sky god. 
Those from Denmark and Sweden believed the aurora came from a volcano far in the north, put there by the gods to give humanity light and warmth. 
Another belief based on gods comes from the Australian Aborigines who thought the colourful display was the gods dancing across the skies of the south.

(c1890)

'Ride of the Valkyries' by Henry De Groux

Original 

Animals of the Land and Sea

Finland have numerous tales about the origin of the northern lights, which they call revontulet, meaning fox fire.  The most common story tells of the Arctic Fox and his bushy tale.  As the fox ran through the snow, his brush-like tail would touch the mountains, causing sparks to fly up and illuminate the sky above.
An old Scandinavian name for the aurora borealis translates as 'herring flash' and they some believed that the aurora was a reflection vast swarms of herring cast into the sky.

Revontuli by t-omena

Original

Mythical Creatures

The Scottish called the northern lights the  'Merry Dancers', which they believed to be supernatural entities dancing in the heavens.  This belief seems to be common in some other regions. The following poem is from the Manx people of the Isle of Man:

The Merry Dancers

The merry dancers are out to-night,
In the northern heavens they skip and go;
Manx Jane says they're fairies tripping it light,
On their own fantastic fairy toe.

She says, now and then they hold a ball,
When the queen takes the lead as she held the first chance;
And the half of the sky is their splendid hall,
And the moon and bright stars all join in the dance.

Right merry they trip near to sunrise,
When they take themselves off to Mona's fair isle;
Where in mountain and glen they often surprise
The early sheep folks, and oft them bequile

To follow them on to here and to there,
Till they all lose the way and half daft with fright,
Slink down in the Curraghs done up with despair,
Till the full light of day sets them again all to right.

When they gather the flocks that were frighten'd away,
To lead them to pasture wherever 'tis green;
And know by its richness where fairies do stray;
For grass grows the greenest where fairies have been.

Thus, north of the Isle you'll find the best land,
Where everything grows luxuriant and fine;
The 'reason why' is that the fairies' light wand
Waves over it a blessing that's almost Divine.

Photograph by J.C. Casado

Original 

The Russians believed that the Aurora was a fire dragon, Ognenniy Zmey, who is said to have seduced women during the absence of their husbands.  A similar belief comes from the Iroquois of Native America whose folklore states that the maiden Awenhai believed she had been seduced by the Fire Dragon, or Aurora Borealis.  It has been suggested by some that the Chinese Torch Dragon is 'a mythical interpretation of the aurora borealis.'  A portrayal of the Torch Dragon from between the 3rd century BC and the 1st century AD is as follows:

    'Beyond the northwest seas, north of the River Scarlet there is Mount Brillianttail.  There is a god-human here with a human face and a snake's body, and he is scarlet.  He has vertical eyes that are in a straight seam.  When this deity closes his eyes, there is darkness.  When the deity look with his eyes, there is light.  He neither eats, nor sleeps, nor breathes.  The wind and the rain are at his beck and call.  This deity shines his torch over the ninefold darkness.  This deity is Torch Dragon.

Fear of the Aurora

Not all folktales portray the Aurora as nonthreatening.  The Sami people from Lapland believed that one should tread carefully and quietly when the northern lights were observed.  Mocking them may cause the lights to descend and kill.  Eskimos of Alaska also saw the Aurora as something to be feared and carried weapons to protect themselves when the northern lights were visible.  In the Faroe Islands, children would not venture outdoors during the Aurora because they feared the lights would strike them and singe their hair.

Lapps hunting by the Aurora Borealis from 'Under the Rays of the 

Aurora Borealis' 1882-1883 Bomholt, International Polar Research Expedition

 Original

That's it for today, dear readers.  In part two I'll be focusing on the sun and the moon in folklore, myth and legend.  Until next time.


Useful Resources

http://www.unmuseum.org/7wonders/northernlights.htm
http://www.windows2universe.org/mythology/valkiries_northernlight.html
http://www.ewebtribe.com/NACulture/articles/aurora.html
http://www.chilloutpoint.com/featured/stunning-images-and-legends-of-the-northern-lights-aurora-borealis.html
http://www.globalbioweather.com/aurora_mythology.html
http://dennismammana.com/skyinfo/astrofacts/aurora_folklore.htm
http://www.mythologydictionary.com/aurora-borealis-mythology.html
https://wiki.oulu.fi/display/SpaceWiki/Auroral+folklore
http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/themis/auroras/aurora_history.html#.VFeIC2eKhdg

The Data Book of Astronomy by Patrick Moore
Aurora: The Northern Lights in Mythology, History and Science by Harald Falck-Ytter
Deadfall by Robert Liparulo
Manxiana; Rhymes and Legends... First Series, Etc by J. E. Pattison
Heaven and Earth in Early Han Thought: Chapters Three, Four, and Five of the Huainanzi by John S. Major
The Classic of Mountains and Seas by Anne Birrell

Legend from the Land of Ice and Fire - Part Three - The Guardian Spirits of Iceland

King Harald told the warlock to hie to Iceland in some altered shape, and to try what he could learn there to tell him: and he set out in the shape of a whale.  And when he came near to the land he went to the west side of Iceland, north around the land, where he saw all the mountains and hills full of guardian-spirits, some great, some small.  When he came to Vapnafjord he went in towards the land, intending to go on shore; but a huge dragon rushed down the dale against him with a train of serpents, paddocks, and toads, that blew poison towards him.  Then he turned to go westward around the land as far as Eyjafjord, and he went into the fjord.  Then a bird flew against him, which was so great that its wings stretched over the mountains on either side of the fjord, and many birds, great and small, with it.  Then he swam farther west, and then south into Breidafjord.  When he came into the fjord a large grey bull ran against him, wading into the sea, and bellowing fearfully, and he was followed by a crowd of land-spirits.  From thence he went round by Reykjanes, and wanted to land at Vikarsskeid, but there came down a hill-giant against him with an iron staff in his hands.  He was a head higher than the mountains, and many other giants followed him.  He then swam eastward along the land, and there was nothing to see, he said, but sand and vast deserts, and, without the skerries, high-breaking surf, and the ocean between the countries was so wide that a long-ship could not cross it.  At that time Brodhelge dwelt in Vapnafjord, Eyjolf Valgerdson in Eyjafjord, Thord Geller in Breidafjord, and Thorod Gode in Olfus.  Then the Danish king turned about with his fleet, and sailed back to Denmark.
        From Heimskringle by Snorri Sturlason

The above story is embodied in The Seal of Iceland.  Here you can see that:

• the Dragon represents and guards the East

• the Bird, represents and guards the North

• the Bull represents and guards the West

• the Giant represents and guards the South

The guardian spirits found their way onto Iceland's coat of arms on February 12, 1919.  A royal decree stated, 'The Icelandic coat of arms shall be a crowned shield charged with the flag of Iceland.  The bearers of the shield are the country's four familiar guardian spirits: a dragon, a vulture, a bull and a giant.'

As these four creatures are present on the Icelandic coat of arms, I thought people might enjoy learning some of the myths, legends and folklore that include them.  Below you will find some of the stories I discovered.  It may be worth noting that dragons are often referred to as worms in Icelandic and Norse myth.

'The Scandinavian Mester Stoorworm was father of all worms, the first and the largest, with its length stretching halfway across the world.  His venomous breath could kill every creature and could wither up all growing things.  It looked like a gargantuan mountain, with eyes that glowed and flamed like a ward fire, and a forked tongue thousands of miles long; he could sweep whole towns, trees, and hills into the sea.  As he died, Mester Soorworm spewed out his teeth and they became the Faroes, Orkneys, and Shetland Islands.  His forked tongue entangled itself on the moon, and his body hardened into Iceland.'
        From: The Complete Idiot's Guide to Elves and Fairies by Sirona Knight

The Tree of Yggdrasil - the tree of the universe or the tree of life - gives us not one but two of the guardians of Iceland: the bird and the dragon.  Below are quotes from the story.
'From its tree great roots the tree attained such a marvellous height that its topmost bough Lerad (the peace giver) overshadowed Odin's hall, while the other wide-spreading branches towered over the other worlds.  An eagle was perched on the bough Lerad, and between his eyes sat the falcon Vedfolnir, sending his piercing glances down into heaven, earth, and Nifl-heim, and reporting all that he saw.

'In the seething cauldron Hvergelmir, close by the great tree, a horrible dragon, called Nidhug, continually gnawed the roots, and was helped in his destruction by countless worms, whose aim it was to kill the tree, knowing that its death would be the signal for the downfall of the gods.'

The dragon Nidhug can also be found in the book Viking Tales of the North by Rasmus B. Anderson:

            'Through all our life a temper prowls malignant,
            The cruel Nidhug from the world below.
            He hates that asa-light, whose rays benignant
            On th' hero's brow and glitt'ring sword bright glow.

Nidhug or Nidhogg (Old Norse Níðhöggr, meaning 'Curse-striker' or 'He Who Strikes with Malice') is prominent in Norse mythology and also plays a role in Ragnarock - the foretold doom of gods and men.  Nudhug can be found in Völuspá (Insight of the Seeress), the first and best known poem of the Poetic Edda:

            '39: I saw there wading through rivers wilde
            Treacherous men and murderers too,
            And workers of ill with the wives of men;
            There Nithhogg sucked the blood of the slain,
            And the wolf tore men; would you know yet more?'

            'There comes the dark dragon flying,
            the shining serpent, up from Niðafjöll
            Níðhöggr flies over the plain, in his wings
            he carries corpses.'
            Niðafjöll means 'Mountains of the Dead Moon'.

Nithafjoll, also written Niðvellir, meaning dark mountains, is the name of the mountains of the northern underworld.

The rest of this epic poem can be found HERE.

While it is too long to relate here, there is also the Norse myth that tells of Fafnir, the great dragon that was slain by Sugurd, which is told in the Volsunga saga (Saga of the Volsungs).  In this myth Fadnir is the son of the dwarf king, Hreidmar and has two brothers, Otr and Regin.  Fafnir murders his father so he can take his gold - gold which was compensation from Odin for the loss of one of Hreidmar's sons.  Fafnir transforms into a great dragon so he can guard his stolen treasure and is later slain by the hero Sigurd.  Birds can also be found in this tale.  When Sigurd cooks the dragon's heart for Regin to eat, he burns his thumb of the heart and puts his thumb in his mouth, giving him the ability to understand the language of birds.  The birds tell Sigurd that Regin had intended to kill him, so Sigurd kills Regin and leaves with Fafnir's treasure.  You can find the complete myth HERE.

Birds feature prominently in Icelandic myth, with the whooping swan, rjúpa (ptarmigan) and gyrfalcan having strong influence in their stories.  In the Poetic Edda, the Valkyries are often referred to as swan-maidens because they worse swan feathers, enabling them to fly.

            'Maids from the south through Myrkwood flew.
            Fair and young their fate to follow;
            On the shore of the sea to rest them they sat
            The maids of the south, and flax they spun.
            ...
            Hlathguth and Hervor, Hlothver's children,
            And Olrun the Wise Kjar's daughter was.
            ...
            One in her arms took Egil then
            To her bosom white the woman fair.
            Swan-White second - swan-feathers she wore.
            ...
            And her arms the third of the sisters threw
            Next round Völund's neck so white.
            There did they sit for seven winters,
            In the eighth at last came their longing again.
            (And in the ninth did need divide them).
            The maidens yearned for the murky wood.
            The fair young maids, their fate to follow.

The above excerpt from the poem  Völundarkvitha in the Poetic Edda tells us of Volund, a famous master smith, and his two brothers Egil and Slagfid who encountered the three swan-maidens bathing in the lake.  The three brothers married the maidens, with Volund marrying Alvit, Egil marrying Olrun and Stagfid marrying Svanhvit.  The swan-maidens remainded with the three brothers for seven years before abandoning their husbands, never to be heard of again.

The following myth, called Rjúpa, is a translation by Baldur Bjarnason  from this version and tells of both the falcon and the ptarmigan.

The Falcon's Shriek
     Once upon a time, Virgin Mary summoned all of the birds to meet her.  Waiting for them, when they arrived, was a shallow pit of fire.  Mary ordered them to wade the fire to prove their loyalty to her.  The birds knew that Mary was the queen of heaven and commanded great power.  They dared not disobey her orders and instructions and so, one by one, they jumped into the flames and waded through the fire.
     Everybody except the rjúpa.
     Every other bird came through the fire with all of the feathers on their legs scorched off and the skin seared, which is how they have been ever since, all because of the Virgin Mary's pit of fire.
The rjúpa's fate was decided that day, since she was the only bird to defy the command to wade the fire.  Mary was furious at the rjúpa and cursed her to be the most defenceless and harmless of all of bird-kind, ad that she would be relentlessly stalked, harassed, and chased from here on, except during Whitsun.  The falcon, the rjúpa's loving brother, was now to hunt and kill her and feed on her flesh.
Mary had some mercy for the rjúpa and made it so that the rjúpa would change colours depending on the seasons, white in the winter, mossy-grey in the summer, so that she could hide from the falcon.
Since then, the falcon has hunted, killed, and eater his sister, and his enchanted fury doesn't waver or wane except for that one moment when he has torn through the rjúpa's breast.
     Upon seeing her torn open, her heart bare to the world, he realises that she is his sister - that he has eaten her to her heart - and is so overtaken with such sorrow that his shrieks fill the sky for days afterwards.

However, the bird that comes closest to being the Icelandic National Bird is the raven and, without doubt, Huginn and Muninn are most well known.

 Huginn (thought) and Muninn (memory or mind) belong to Odin and were a gift from Hulda.  During the day these two ravens fly throughout the worlds and return to Odin in Valhalla during dinner to whisper all they have discovered.  Huginn represents the power of intellectual thought and the left side of the brain, while Muninn represents the power of reflective memory - of both past and future events - and the right side of the brain.  In the poetic Edda, Odin says,

            'O'er Mithgarth Hugin and Munin both
            Each day set forth to fly;
            For Hugin I fear lest he come not him
            But for Munin my care is more.'

Bulls, oxen and cattle feature heavily in Icelandic mythology, often as nourishment and many of these myths also feature giants.  They first appeared, along with giants, in the Norse Creation of the World myth:

'As the heat of Muspell began to thaw the ice of Niflheim, the evil giant Ymir emerged.  Then a cow called Audhumla formed out of the melting ice, and produced milk for Ymir to drink.  As he drank and was further warmed by the air of Muspell, Ymir started to sweat, and two more giants were formed in the sweat under his left arm while another emerged from his legs.  When Audhumla licked the ice, she freed yet another giant, called Buri, from inside the ice.  These frost giants ruled the cosmos.  Buri's son Bor married Bestla, daughter of the giant Bolthorn, and had three children, the gods Odin, Vili, and Ve.  Ymir was cruel to all around him, and the sons of Bor hated him.  They fought the giant and killed him, and used his body as material from which to create the world.  From his skull they made the sky; from his brains, the clouds.  The gods made rocks from his bones and rivers and seas from his blood, which was so prolific that it drowned all the other frost giants except for two, Bergelmir and his wife.'

The myth of Thor and the Midgard Serpent is another myth containing both cattle and giants.  Hymir, meaning dark one, was a frost giant.  He had a huge cauldron which was so deep it could brew enough ale for all the gods.  Without the cauldron Aegir, the sea god, was unable to offer hospitality to Odin and his companions.  So Tyr and Thor were sent to retrieve the huge vessel.  When they arrived, Tyr's mother told them to hide until she had explained their presence to Hymir.  Hymir found them and, while uneasy, offered them a meal.  Thor amazed those around the table when he devoured two oxen by himself.  The next day Hymir suggested they go fishing or there would be nothing for them to eat that day.  Off they set in Hymir's boat.  Thor baited his colossal hook with the head of Himinrjot, a huge black ox belonging to Hymir.  The bait was taken by Jormungand, the Midgard Serpent.  Thor hit the serpent with his hammer.  But Hymir was terrified and, in the chaos that followed, Jormungand tore free off the hook and sank, bleeding, beneath the surface of the waves.  Two whales ended up being the meal for the day.  On the return to Hymir's hall, relations between the host and his guests quickly deteriorated until Thor left, taking the cauldron with him.  Hymir and some other frost giants tried to follow him in order to regain the cauldron, but Thor used his hammer, killing all who had tried to follow.

I hope you've enjoyed reading.  Please check our some of the websites and books below.  They are all really helpful if your interested in this topic.  Until next time.


Sources for Further Reading


Websites
http://norse-mythology.org/tales/thor-fishing-for-jormungand/
http://www.gutenberg.org/files/598/598-h/598-h.htm
http://archiver.rootsweb.ancestry.com/th/read/FOLKLORE/2000-07/0964199143
http://eng.forsaetisraduneyti.is/state-symbols/icelandic-coat-of-arms/history/
http://www.viking-mythology.com/dwarfs.php
http://www.odinist.com/othala/showthread.php?341-Study-Topic-1-Voluspa-%28The-Seeress-s-Prophecy%29
http://norse-mythology.org/gods-and-creatures/giants/nidhogg/
https://guidetoiceland.is/nature-info/birds-in-iceland
http://www.timelessmyths.com/norse/valkyries.html#Swan
http://studiotendra.com/2013/01/02/the-falcons-shriek/
http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/poe/index.htm

Books
Myths of the Norsemen: From the Eddas and Sagas by H. A. Guerber
Viking Tales from the North by Rasmus B. Anderson
The Riddles of the Hobbit by Adam Roberts
Vril: The Life Force of the Gods by Robert Blumetti
The Encyclopedia of World Mythology by Arthur Cotterell and Rachel Storm
DK Eyewitness Companions: Mythology by Phillip Wilkinson and Neil Philip
The Complete Idiot's Guide to Elves and Fairies by Sirona Knight

Images
http://joyous-art.blogspot.co.uk/2014/04/tuesdays-tales-iceland-again.html
http://www.orkneyjar.com/folklore/stoor.htm
http://yggdrasil.me/
http://wiki.urbandead.com/index.php/User:Nithhogg
http://www.penhook.org/dragons3.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Valkyries_with_swan_skins.jpg
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Iceland-or-jer-falcon-plate-366-birds-of-america-hohtn-james-audubon1838.jpg
http://norse-mythology.org/gods-and-creatures/others/hugin-and-munin/
http://www.artexpertswebsite.com/pages/artists/abildgaard.php
http://jp.appgame.com/archives/176153.html

Legend from the Land of Ice and Fire - Part Two - The Huldufolk and Alfar Elves

The Huldufolk, Huldra Folk or Huldre Folk (Hidden Folk) are Scandinavian elves and fairies.  According to Icelandic folklore, they date back to biblical times and to the children of Adam and Eve.  Below is the story of their origin.

     Once upon a time, God Almighty came to visit Adam and Eve.  They received him with joy and showed him everything they had in the house.  They also brought their children to him, to show him, and these He found promising and full or hope.
     Then he asked Eve whether she had no other children that these whom she now showed him.
     She said, 'None.'
     But it so happened that she had not finished washing them all, and, being ashamed to let God see them dirty, had hidden the unwashed ones.   This God knew well, and said therefore to her, 'What man hides from God, God will hide from man.'
     These unwashed children became forthwith invisible, and took up their abode in mounds, and hills, and rocks.  From these are the elves descended, but we men from those of Eve's children whom she had openly and frankly shown to God.  And it is only by the will and desire of the elves themselves that men can ever see them.

The Brother's Grimm related their own variation of this tale where Eve showed only her beautiful children to God and hid the ugly children away.  God tells they beautiful children that they will be kings and princes.  Seeing God's generosity, Eve produces the ugly children - but God, by this point, was not feeling so benevolent.  He told the ugly children that they were destined to become peasants, servants and scullions.

Other folklore tells us that the huldufolk are no more than spirits fallen from heaven during the war between god and the devil.  Here is a tale to portray that opinion.

     A traveller once lost his way, and knew not whither to turn or what to do.  At last, after wandering about for some time, he came to a hut, which he had never seen before; and on his knocking at the door an old woman opened it, and invited him to come in, which he gladly did.
     Inside, the house seemed to be a clean and good one.  The old woman led him to the warmest room, where were sitting two young and beautiful girls.  Besides these, no one else was in the house.  He was well received and kindly treated, and having eaten a good supper was shown to bed.
     He asked whether one of the girls might stay with him, as his companion for the night, and his request was granted.
     And now wishing to kiss her, the traveller turned towards her, and placed his hand upon her; but his hand sank through her, as if she had been of mist, and though he could well see her tying beside him, he could grasp nothing but the air.
      So he asked what this all meant, and she said, 'Be not astonished, for I am a spirit.  When the devil, in times gone by, made war in heaven, he, with all his armies, was driven into outer darkness.  Those who turned their eyes to look after him as he fell were also driven out of heave, but those who were neither for nor against him were sent to the earth and commanded to dwell there in the rocks and mountains.
     These are called elves and hidden people.  They can live in company with none but their own race.  They do either good or evil, which they will, but what they do they do thoroughly.  They have no bodies as you other mortals, but can take a human form and be seen of men when they wish.  I am one of these fallen spirits, and so you can never hope to embrace me.'
     To this fate the traveller yielded himself, and has handed down to us this story.

 The elves of Iceland correspond closely with British fairies, with many of the same stories being told in Britain as in Iceland.  In Iceland, however, they differ in that they are always of full human size and can often only be distinguish by some minor detail - a ridge instead of a groove in the top lip, or the absence of a division between the nostrils.  Their society is often an idealised version of human society.  They live inside mountains or hills, or even invisible farmsteads, living off the land.  They go to market, hold religious services and sometimes are said to have a king.

Their attitudes towards humans varies.  In some cases they are kidnappers, bringers of sickness, cruel and vengeful, and in others they are benevolent and kind, rewarding goodness and courage, protecting and helping their human friends, and punish only those who are undeserving of their kindness.  In some tales they are portrayed as heathens which fear the name of God, and in others they have their own religion, priests, services, sacraments and hymns which seem to closely correspond with Christianity.  Below is a tale which shows how people craved the help of the huldufolk whilst still fearing their involvement.

Who Built the Reynir Church?
     A farmer who once lived at Reynir, in the district of Myrdal, had been ordered by the bishop to build a church near his farmhouse.  However, he was having much difficulty in getting enough timber before the hay making season and in finding proper builders to do the work.  The farmer worried that he would be unable to complete the church before the winter.
     One day, as he walked through his field, sadly thinking the matter over and wondering how to explain this predicament to the bishop, a strange man stopped before him and offered his services in building the church.  He declared that he would complete the work alone and had no need of other workmen.  The farmer asked the strange man what payment he would require for his services.  The man made the following condition - the farmer should either discover the name of this stranger before the work was done, or give the man his six year old son.  The farmer found these terms acceptable and consented to the,
     So the strange man set to work building the church.  He was a good worker, barely speaking to anyone as he worked, until the church rose beneath his hands as if by magic.  The farmer could see that the work would be finished even before the hay making was over.
     However, by this time the farmer had changed his mind about the payment which he'd previously thought to be so easy.  He felt far from happy that the church building was almost finished because no matter who he asked, no matter where he searched, no matter how hard he tried, he simply could not discover the name of this unusually quick handed mason.  Despite his anxieties, the church continued to rise and, by the time autumn arrived, the church needed very little labour to finish it.
     On the last day of work, the farmer was yet again wandering his field, already grieving over the loss of his son, when he came to a mound.  Here he threw himself down and lay for a moment when he heard someone singing.  He listened and found that it was a mother singing to her child.  The singing came from within the mound and this is what it said:
             Soon will thy father Finnur come from Reynir,
             Bringing a little playmate for thee, here.
     The words were repeated over and over again, and it didn't take long for the farmer to discern their meaning.  He ran back to where the strange man was nailing the last plank over the altar.
     'Well done, friend Finnur!' he said.  'How soon you have finished your work!'  No sooner had the words passed his lips than Finnur, letting the plank fall from his hand, vanished into thin air, never to be seen again.

While they made their first appearances, usually in some distorted form, in medieval sagas, the hidden folk became common knowledge in the 16th century and, after around 1600, the mention of elves became more frequent.

There does seem to be some confusion in Icelandic folklore between the huldufolk and alfar.  Some believe that these two terms refer to just one type of mythical being.  Others, however, claim that they are two separate entities, with the common rule of thumb being that the huldufolk drink coffee and eat bread because they're closely related to humans, where the alfar do not.

The alfar were said to construct small stone houses in remote areas of Iceland, which the local people called alfhol, which roughly translates to elf houses.  Here they were said to live side by side with Icelanders, enjoying a close relationship with them.  The alfar were closely connected with fertility and are believed to have fathered a number of children with Icelandic women.  It is also claimed that they were skilled at growing all manner of things and were excellent with horticulture.  The alfar observed many Pagan traditions, including festivals and dances.  This brought them into conflict with the Christian Church as it spread across Iceland during the 11th and 12th centuries. 

There was a general opposition to dancing in Iceland during the late 12th century, especially during ancient festivals.  This oppositions was largely inspired by the Church, who saw dancing as anti-religious and the huldufolk and alfar as secretive and sinister Pagans.  A number of tales relate how the huldufolk and alfar joined forces with local communities to oppose this ban on dancing and to restore the old festivals.  The Church took a dim view on this kind of action and decreed that the huldufolk and alfar should be driven away from civilisation.  However, these tales of the huldufolk aiding various communities can be seen going into the 15th century, with one such tale relating how the huldufolk aid a village in overthrowing a harsh sheriff who had placed a ban on both dancing and festivals.

But relations between the Hidden Folk and humans were not always so good.  While there were many nights when the huldufolk congregated - especially during winter - or 'thick nights - when the sky remained dark even during the day, there were four human festivals which were very special to them.  These were Christmas, Twelfth Night (January 6th, New Year's Eve and Midsummer.  Their behaviour during these festivals left much to be desired.  They became boisterous and troublesome, often causing damage and injuring humans.  They broke into houses, attacking those that lived there, and held parties which many claim were of a sexual nature, with young girls being raped or otherwise attacked.  Some claimed that, if the huldufolk were provoked on these nights they might even go as far as to kill. 

For the 13th century onwards, the huldufolk were betrayed in a less than flattering light, with emphasis often being placed on their misdeeds and evil nature.  Their appearance became misshapen and demonic, and their attitudes became more malignant and anti-human.

Today, Icelandic people still tread carefully around the Huldufolk.  Building projects are still impacted by these hidden people, as in December 2013, when elf advocates joined forces with environmentalists to urge the Icelandic Road and Coastal Commission and local authorities to abandon the building of  a new road for fear of disturbing the elves.  They claimed that the area also contained an elf church.  The project was halted to await the decision of the Supreme Court.  In fact, polls consistently show that the majority of the population of Iceland either openly believe in elves or are unwilling to deny their existence.  Even today, hidden folk and elves greatly influence the Icelandic people, who even build little houses for the elves and huldufolk to live in.

For those that want a deeper understanding of the the elves of Iceland, there's always Elf School.  Known as Álfaskólinn in Icelandic, this school teaches both students and visitors about Icelandic folklore, with focus of the hidden people and the 13 different kinds of elves that the school believes inhabit the Icelandic landscape.  According to the school's headmaster, hidden people 'are just the same size and look exactly like human beings, the only difference is that they are invisible to most of us.  Elves, on the other hand, aren't entirely human, they're humanoid, starting at around eight centimetres.'  For further information about the school, please visit their website here.

I hope you've enjoyed reading this.  Next time we will look at the four Guardians of Iceland.  


Sources
http://bigstory.ap.org/article/icelands-hidden-elves-delay-road-projects
http://www.pitt.edu/~dash/mbuilder.html#reynirchurch
http://grapevine.is/mag/articles/2009/05/27/article-to-be-or-not-to-be/
http://theverybesttop10.com/icelandic-elf-houses/
http://www.elfmuseum.com/

The Illustrated Encyclopaedia of Fairies by Anna Franklin
Dark Fairies by Bob Curran
Icelandic Folktales and Legends by Jacqueline Simpson

Images
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hulduf%C3%B3lk
http://turninto7.com/eves-unequal-children.html
http://dailyrevolution.com/friday/elves.html

http://www.imagea.org/iceland/images/b389-d.jpg
https://www.pinterest.com/icelandislande/iceland-road-sign/
http://theverybesttop10.com/icelandic-elf-houses/