Mythology, Legend and Folklore of the Sky - Part One - The Aurora

Definition of Aurora: 'a natural electrical phenomenon characterised by the appearance of streamers of reddish or greenish light in the sky, especially near the northern or southern magnetic pole.  The effect is caused by the interaction of charged particles from the sun with atoms in the upper atmosphere.  In northern and southern regions it is respectively called aurora borealis or Northern Lights and aurora australis or Southern Lights.'

 Original

Ezekiel, a prophet of ancient Israel is believed to have written the following in the 6th century BC, '... a whirlwind came out of the north, a great cloud, and a fire infolding itself, and a brightness was about it, and out of the midst thereof as the colour of amber, out of the midst of fire.'  Aristotle, the Greek philosopher also observed the aurora in 344BC, which he compared with flames from known sources on Earth.  The term 'aurora borealis' was coined by Galileo Galilei in 1619 after Aurora, the Roman goddess of morning.  Galileo believed the aurora was cause by sunlight reflecting from the atmosphere.  The Romans called the aurora 'chasmate' meaning the mouths of celestial caves.

I have always been fascinated by the aurora and it seems I'm not alone.  This spectacular light displate has awed people the world over since prehistoric times and has inspired the creation of fantastical stories.  The oldest recorded sighting of the aurora comes from China in 2600BC: 'Fu-Pan, the mother of the Yellow Empire Shuan-Yuan, saw strong lightning moving around the star Su, which belongs to the constellation of Bei-Dou, and the light illuminated the whole area.'

1570AD A depiction of the Aurora Borealis

Original

The Aurora and the Souls of the Dead

Many aurora folktales centre around the same theme - spirits and souls of the dead.  In some parts of Greenland it was believed  the lights were the dead trying to communicate with their family and friends.  In eastern Greenland, the Eskimos believed that the Aurora's lights were the spirits of children dancing and their dancing is what causes the lights to swirl and stream and ribbon its way across the sky.  The Kwakiutl and Tlingit of Southeastern Alaska and the Salteaus Indians of eastern Canada, who had a similar belief, also see souls dancing.  And not all souls and spirits had to be human.  According to the Eskimos of the lower Yukon River believed that the dancing spirits were those of animals, especially the spirits of deer, seal, salmon and beluga.  In Labrador, the Inuits have the following story:

An etching/aquatint by Inuit artist Germaine Arnaktauyok, 

depicts the arsarnerit legend, in which Inuit ancestors play football with a walrus skull.

Original 

    The ends of the land and sea are bounded by an immense abyss, over which a narrow and dangerous pathway leads to the heavenly regions.  The shy is a great dome of hard material ached over the earth.  There is a hole in it through which the spirits pass to the true heavens.  Only the spirit of those who have died a voluntary or violent death, and the raven, have been over this pathway.  The spirits who live there light torches to guide the feet of new arrivals.  This is the light of the aurora.  They can be seen there feasting and playing football with a walrus skull.
    The whistling crackling noise which sometimes accompanies the aurora is the voices of these spirits trying to communicate with the people of the earth.  They should always be answered in a whispering  voice.  Youths and small boys dance to the aurora.  The heavenly spirits are called selamiut 'sky-dweller,' those who live in the sky.

Unfortunately, not all spirits were considered kind or benign.  To the Latvians, who saw the northern lights as the warrior souls of the dead fighting, a red aurora observed during the winter foretold disaster.  The Wisconsin Fox Indians, who had a very similar belief, interpreted the Aurora Borealis as the coming of war and disease, saw the restless ghosts of their slain foes attempting to rise up for vengeance.   

The Gods

It has been suggested that the reflections of the Valkyries' shields is the way in which the aurora borealis is represented in Norse mythology.  This seems fitting as the Valkyries were the assistants of Odin, the Sky god. 
Those from Denmark and Sweden believed the aurora came from a volcano far in the north, put there by the gods to give humanity light and warmth. 
Another belief based on gods comes from the Australian Aborigines who thought the colourful display was the gods dancing across the skies of the south.

(c1890)

'Ride of the Valkyries' by Henry De Groux

Original 

Animals of the Land and Sea

Finland have numerous tales about the origin of the northern lights, which they call revontulet, meaning fox fire.  The most common story tells of the Arctic Fox and his bushy tale.  As the fox ran through the snow, his brush-like tail would touch the mountains, causing sparks to fly up and illuminate the sky above.
An old Scandinavian name for the aurora borealis translates as 'herring flash' and they some believed that the aurora was a reflection vast swarms of herring cast into the sky.

Revontuli by t-omena

Original

Mythical Creatures

The Scottish called the northern lights the  'Merry Dancers', which they believed to be supernatural entities dancing in the heavens.  This belief seems to be common in some other regions. The following poem is from the Manx people of the Isle of Man:

The Merry Dancers

The merry dancers are out to-night,
In the northern heavens they skip and go;
Manx Jane says they're fairies tripping it light,
On their own fantastic fairy toe.

She says, now and then they hold a ball,
When the queen takes the lead as she held the first chance;
And the half of the sky is their splendid hall,
And the moon and bright stars all join in the dance.

Right merry they trip near to sunrise,
When they take themselves off to Mona's fair isle;
Where in mountain and glen they often surprise
The early sheep folks, and oft them bequile

To follow them on to here and to there,
Till they all lose the way and half daft with fright,
Slink down in the Curraghs done up with despair,
Till the full light of day sets them again all to right.

When they gather the flocks that were frighten'd away,
To lead them to pasture wherever 'tis green;
And know by its richness where fairies do stray;
For grass grows the greenest where fairies have been.

Thus, north of the Isle you'll find the best land,
Where everything grows luxuriant and fine;
The 'reason why' is that the fairies' light wand
Waves over it a blessing that's almost Divine.

Photograph by J.C. Casado

Original 

The Russians believed that the Aurora was a fire dragon, Ognenniy Zmey, who is said to have seduced women during the absence of their husbands.  A similar belief comes from the Iroquois of Native America whose folklore states that the maiden Awenhai believed she had been seduced by the Fire Dragon, or Aurora Borealis.  It has been suggested by some that the Chinese Torch Dragon is 'a mythical interpretation of the aurora borealis.'  A portrayal of the Torch Dragon from between the 3rd century BC and the 1st century AD is as follows:

    'Beyond the northwest seas, north of the River Scarlet there is Mount Brillianttail.  There is a god-human here with a human face and a snake's body, and he is scarlet.  He has vertical eyes that are in a straight seam.  When this deity closes his eyes, there is darkness.  When the deity look with his eyes, there is light.  He neither eats, nor sleeps, nor breathes.  The wind and the rain are at his beck and call.  This deity shines his torch over the ninefold darkness.  This deity is Torch Dragon.

Fear of the Aurora

Not all folktales portray the Aurora as nonthreatening.  The Sami people from Lapland believed that one should tread carefully and quietly when the northern lights were observed.  Mocking them may cause the lights to descend and kill.  Eskimos of Alaska also saw the Aurora as something to be feared and carried weapons to protect themselves when the northern lights were visible.  In the Faroe Islands, children would not venture outdoors during the Aurora because they feared the lights would strike them and singe their hair.

Lapps hunting by the Aurora Borealis from 'Under the Rays of the 

Aurora Borealis' 1882-1883 Bomholt, International Polar Research Expedition

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That's it for today, dear readers.  In part two I'll be focusing on the sun and the moon in folklore, myth and legend.  Until next time.


Useful Resources

http://www.unmuseum.org/7wonders/northernlights.htm
http://www.windows2universe.org/mythology/valkiries_northernlight.html
http://www.ewebtribe.com/NACulture/articles/aurora.html
http://www.chilloutpoint.com/featured/stunning-images-and-legends-of-the-northern-lights-aurora-borealis.html
http://www.globalbioweather.com/aurora_mythology.html
http://dennismammana.com/skyinfo/astrofacts/aurora_folklore.htm
http://www.mythologydictionary.com/aurora-borealis-mythology.html
https://wiki.oulu.fi/display/SpaceWiki/Auroral+folklore
http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/themis/auroras/aurora_history.html#.VFeIC2eKhdg

The Data Book of Astronomy by Patrick Moore
Aurora: The Northern Lights in Mythology, History and Science by Harald Falck-Ytter
Deadfall by Robert Liparulo
Manxiana; Rhymes and Legends... First Series, Etc by J. E. Pattison
Heaven and Earth in Early Han Thought: Chapters Three, Four, and Five of the Huainanzi by John S. Major
The Classic of Mountains and Seas by Anne Birrell

Some of Kent's Ghosts

There are so many purportedly haunted places throughout the world.  The stories are endless. This year I thought I'd learn a little more about the ghost stories of my own county, Kent, in the UK.  Known as the Garden of England, Kent has a wealth of history and, according to some reports, more ghosts appear in Kent than anywhere else in the UK.  When you take into account that this is where you'll find Pluckley which was crowned the most haunted village in England in 1989 and still retains its crown today.

Pluckley, near Ashford has the title of the most haunted village in England and has 12 recorded ghosts, although some sources state there are up to 24 in residence.  St Nicholas' Church is said to be home to the spirit of Lady Dering who died hundreds of years ago.  In hope of preserving her body, Lord Dering buried his deceased wife in an airtight lead coffin encased in two lead coffins and further encased inside an oak coffin with a red rose at her breast.  This quadruple coffin was then buried in the Dering vault, below the Dering Chapel in the south-east part of the church.  The coffins, however, didn't stop her spirit from returning on certain nights, still dressed in the finery she was buried in, still holding the red rose.  There are some suggestions that the lady was as wicked as she was beautiful.
The Dering Chapel also plays host to strange lights seen in the upper half of the stained glass window.  A woman's voice can also be heard in the churchyard, and strange, unexplained knocking noises echo throughout the Dering Chapel at night.

St Nicholas' Church, Pluckley

Another Lady Dering, most often known as the White Lady, is said to haunt the ruins of Surrenden Dering.  Yet another member of the Dering family, referred to as the Red Lady, is believed to haunt the churchyard.  This wishful, sad spirit searches for the baby she once lost.  She is believed to be the wife of one of the Derings who were lords of the manor of Pluckley for centuries.  Popularly, her spirit wanders the churchyard at night, sobbing  and searching for her lost child.  Why she is referred to as the Red Lady is unknown.

Greystone house, just down the hill from St Nicholas' Church, is said to be haunted by a monk from the 16th century.  One story recounts how he was in love with the Lady of Rose Court, a nearby Tudor house.  A more popular story tells thast he was the confessor to the same lady during the time in which Roman Catholic religion was banned.  If this were the case, it is likely that the monk would have met a grisly end.  He has been seen at night as little more than a shadow figure reflected on the walls of some of the newer homes along the path where he and the lady may have walked.

Rose Court plays host to a former owner whose voice can often be heard calling her dogs as she so often did in life.  The house has records to show that it has been standing for 250 years, although the original deeds were lost in a fire.  Rose Court is believed to have been built 100 years earlier than the records show.  The lady's voice can usually be heard between 4pm and 5pm, which is when she died.

Opposite the Black Horse pub a schoolmaster once hanged himself, or was hanged.  In around 1920, Smarden's schoolmaster made weekly visits to Pluckley where he would meet with Pluckley's school headmaster, Henry Tuff.  They would meet at the Black Horse to drink and discuss philosophy.  However, the schoolmaster went missing one summer and, a couple of weeks later, Richard Buss, the then miller, discovered his body hanging from one of the trees which grew just below the mill.  Some believe he can still be seen dangling from the trees which no longer stand here, having long since been cut down.  However, there are no recorded sightings of his spirit.

The ghost of a gypsy, sometimes known as the Watercress Lady for how she once sold watercress at the crossroads, has been glimpsed by people in the autumn near the crossroads.  It is believed that she died when a spark from her pipe ignited the whiskey she was drinking.

There are many accounts of the highwayman in Pluckley.  Unfortunately, there are no records as to who he was.  However, according to one account, in the second half of the 18th century, a local highwayman was cornered by Bow Street Runners and was chased through Pluckley.  At the crossroads is the site of an old, hollow oak, where the highwayman is said to have hidden in hopes the Bow Street Runners would pass him by.  Unfortunately, his horse stopped to graze, alerting one of the Bow Street Runners to his location.  After searching the area, the Bow Street Runner noticed the hollow oak and, guessing that the highwayman was hiding inside, stabbed his sword through a knothole, piercing the highwayman through the heart.  Another account tells of a footpad who hide inside the hollow oak awaiting unsuspecting travellers who he would execute as they passed.  Word of the footpad spread and a traveller decided he wouldn't fall victim to the same trick  He approached the corner, acting as if he were unaware of the danger, until he reached the hollow oak were he swiftly thrust his sword into the hollow, killing the footpad hiding within.

Among the other ghosts haunting Pluckley are the phantom horse-drawn carriage which can be heard clattering down Forge Hill towards Maltman's Hill.  This coach has been seen travelling through the village on several occasions.  One couple, on their way home just after midnight after babysitting their granddaughter one October night, spotted the coach, light streaming from its windows, as it travelled up the hill away from them.  Sounds of a coach turning in the courtyard of a local hotel have also been reported.  In November 1997, at about 7pm, one person claimed that their car was suddenly filled with the sounds of horses hooves on cobble.  The main street was once cobbled.  It should, however, be noted that several residents drive a variety of horse-drawn vehicles in the area.

Park Wood, once an actual wood, although no longer, is home to the spirit of a colonel who hanged himself from one of the trees.  Nothing is known of the colonel except that his spirit can be seen briskly marching through the area.

The Screaming man is said to haunt the brickworks where he apparently met his end, falling to his death into one of the clay holes on site.  While there are no reported sightings of his ghost, nor any reports of this tragic accident, it is believed that his screams can still be heard as his death replays over and over again.

The Black Horse, Pluckley

The Black Horse, which started its life as a farmhouse, then a bailiff's house, now a pub, sees its occupants often complaining about lost items, especially clothing, which go missing for long stretches of time before reappearing.  Despite rigorous searches, the missing items cannot be found until, when almost all hope of them reappearing is itself lost, they suddenly turn up in locations where they could not possibly have been missed.  Some compare these instances to the presence of a poltergeist.

While Pluckley has the title of most haunted village it is, by no means, the only haunted location in Kent.

Bluebell Hill

Bluebell Hill has its own ghost.  Many sightings of this spirit have been reported.  In 1992, three separate motorists reported knocking down a girl who ran into the path of their cars late at night.  Others claim to have picked up a female hitchhiker, who subsequently disappears from the car.  Some believe this to be the spirit of Susan Browne,  a bride-to-be, whose car crashed on the A229 in November 1965, on the eve of her wedding.   Susan, with three of her friends, was returning home from her hen night when her car spun out of control and collided with a Jaguar travelling in the opposite direction.  One of the girls died instantly at the scene of the accident.  Two of the girls later died in hospital.  There are so many sightings of this spirit, it would take me forever to tell you all of them, so I'll settle for the best known.  In 1974, Maurice Goodenough reported having run down a young girl on Bluebell Hill.  He told the police that while the girl's injuries were minor, she was in need of medical attention, so he'd wrapped the girl in a tartan rug and left her beside the road to go for help.  The police accompanied Maurice back to the scene of the accident but the girl had vanished, leaving the tartan rug on the side of the road where Maurice had left the girl.  The police found no blood, no damage to the car and no trace of the victim.  On November 10th, 1992, a man called Ian Sharp had a similar experience.  The young girl appeared, ran towards his car and, just before she disappeared beneath his car, looked him right in the eyes.  Ian Sharp searched beneath his car and the surrounding area but could find no trace of her.  After reporting the accident to the police, another search was conducted, but to no avail.  Yet again, there was no trace of an accident or the girl.  There have also been reported incidents of a young female hitchhiker at the top of Bluebell hill.  The driver pulls over, the girl gets in and on they go.  Then, when the driver stops to let the girl out, she's already disappeared.

Canterbury Cathedral

Canterbury Cathedral, known for its history which can be traced back to the 12th century, has a few ghosts of its own, although it is by no means the only haunted building in Canterbury.  An Archbishop named Simon Sudbury was murdered - beheaded -  by the head of the Peasants revolt, Wat Tyler, in 1381.  A tower was named after him and Sudbury's ghost sometimes appears here.  Witnesses have described a pale man with a long, grey beard.  Despite his head and body having been buried in separate places, his ghost appears whole.

A passage, nicknamed the Dark Entry, is believed to be haunted by the ghost of Nell Cook, who was once a servant at the cathedral.  After witnessing an affair between her employer and a woman, Cook went into a rage and poisoned both her employer and his lover.  As punishment for the murder's she committed, Cook was buried alive in the Dark Entry.  She is most often seen on Friday evenings just after dusk.  According to legend, any that witness this spirit will meet their end soon after.

There are, of course, many, many more sightings, claims and reports of ghostly goings on in Kent, not to mention the surrounding area... the numerous spirits of Dover Castle... the plague victims of lost village of Dode... the spitfire of Biggin' Hill... the horseman of Eastwell Manor.  There are simply too many to list here.  This is but a taste.

http://greenbard.net/greenbard/Pluckley.html
http://unusual-encounters.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/blue-bell-hill.html
http://www.roadghosts.com/blue%20bell%20hill.htm
http://www.kentonline.co.uk/maidstone/news/ghost-story-7879/
http://stevenatkinson93.wordpress.com/2010/09/04/blue-bell-hill-the-story-whats-your-views/
http://www.unexplainable.net/ghost-paranormal/the_haunted_canterbury_cathedral_4137.php
The A-Z of British Ghosts - Peter Underwood

Images
http://churchcrawler-kentchurches.blogspot.co.uk/2010/10/st-nicholas-pluckley.html
http://www.britainexpress.com/attractions.htm?attraction=3330
http://cdn5.hauntedrooms.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/blue-bell-hill-a229.jpg
http://www.sagatiata.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/Canterbury_Canterbury_cathedral_01.jpg

The Witch's Familiar

The Witch's Familiar

During the Medieval and Early Modern periods, belief in witchcraft was rife and predominant in the evidence used against witches during the witch trials was the familiar, or familiar spirit, although the belief in familiars goes back much further. A familiar was believed to be a supernatural entity, essentially a demon, which assisted witches and cunning folk in the practice of their craft and was said to be given to witches or cunning folk by the devil, although ancient lore says that they came from the Otherworld. The basic idea of a familiar probably emerged due to a need for humans to communicate with the unseen world of spirits, with the familiar first serving as a mediator between the physical and spiritual world. This concept later evolved, with the familiar becoming a companion and ally. With the rise of Christianity, the familiar became a servant, given by the Devil, and was considered to be a 'partner in evil' who helped the witch in casting evil spells. These supernatural entities appeared in many forms; often as an animal but were also believed to appear as human or as a humanoid figure. Cats, especially black cats, were favoured, with the fear of all cats being witches familiars resulting in cat massacres which swept through Medieval Europe. The demon helper was also said to inhabit dogs, toads and other small animals. Some sources also say that 'traditional vessels for such spirits were the cat, mouse, ferret, hare, bat, snake, hound, or bird – particularly a raven or an owl.' 

The Witch's Familiar (Original)

 

This connection between humans and animals can be traced back to Palaeolithic (2.5 million and 20,000 years ago) and Neolithic (4000-2500BC) notions, and can be seen in old shamanic practices associated with animal guides. Cave art, including etchings and drawings, depicts scenes that are believed to represent magical themes, along with artefacts from these periods representing different animals and creatures. Many of the animals represented in these periods are identical to those that have later appeared as familiar spirits, suggesting that they are related to ancient beliefs and practices. 

 

The earliest writings associated with witches and familiars show the similarity of a chthonic nature, with many of them being creatures of woodlands, wetlands, and caves which links them to Underworld themes and deities including Hecate, Diana, Pan and Proserpina. These deities are often associated with certain animals: Diana with the hound, Hecate with the toad, Pan with the goat and Proserpina with the serpent. The various types of familiar are often the same creatures associated with moon goddesses, mother goddesses and ancient chthonic deities. Our ancestors believed the night and the moon to be closely connected to the Otherworld and Spirit World, with folk beliefs holding that supernatural entities of the night lived in the dark and wooded places.

Diana and the Hound (Original)

The physical senses, hearing and sense of smell, are stronger in animals than in humans, and, from an occult perspective, their psychic senses are also stronger. So it is believed that a close relationship with a familiar strengthens the sense of a witch. Witches are said to have taken great care of their familiars. Emile Grillot de Givry, in Witchcraft, Magic and Alchemy (1931), describes how witches 'baptised their toads, dressed them in black velvet, put little bells on their paws and made them dance.' The familiar also benefits from this relationship, which supposedly provides the familiar with an expanded view of reality and reinforces the familiar's energy pattern. And so the familiar becomes the mediator between worlds. With both parties benefiting, a connection between the human consciousness and nature's consciousness are said to join, forming a magical consciousness. With both consciousnesses joined, the witch and familiar are said to be capable of opening portals to other realms, accomplishing magical outcomes in both the physical and astral plane. Legends of shapeshifting witches probably originates from these beliefs. In a Lancaster trial written by G. B. Harrison, we are told: 'But the spirits which appear now as men, now as animals, are, at first sight, more difficult to explain until it is remembered that in the witchcraft ritual the members of the coven disguise themselves as animals... (the familiars) are nothing more than the evil humans who were responsible for the whole business.' Owls were often associated with witches, giving us an example of how a witch was believed capable of changing their form. The Romans actually called the owl a 'strix', which translates as 'witch', with another term used during the Middle Ages being 'night hag', referring to the belief that the owl was a witch in bird form. In reality, the familiar is the magical partner and companion of the witch, and vice versa.

Owls were often believed to be a shape-shifted witch (Original)

The oldest idea of the familiar was that it was a spirit animal of an entire species of animal, represented by a single form. This is, in some cultures, called an animal guide or a power animal. These entities can supposedly be used as a link to Nature. This belief is often connected to shamanic practices . One of the earliest signs of the relationship between animal guides and humans can be seen in the Ver Sacrum, a religious practice pre-dating the rise of the Roman Empire which is connected with the Sacred Springtime of the ancient Italic tribes. This rite required the tribe to split up in order to form new colonies, during which their sacred animal was said to guide them. For example, the Sabellians were guided by a bull , the Piceni were guided by a woodpecker and the Lucani were guided by a wolf.

Over time, these supernatural beings, along with fairies, were combined into a common mythos. Jeffrey Burton Russell, author of Witchcraft in the Middle Ages, tells us: 'The small demons that became the Witches' Familiars of the later Middle Ages were originally dwarves, trolls, fairies, elves, kobolds, or the fertility spirits called Green Men...' He goes on to say that black and green were the favoured colours of witches, with green being the colour of the fairies. Richard Baxter, a Puritan cleric, was an earlier figure that viewed familiars as nature spirits. In his treatise, The Certainty of the World of Spirits, which was published in the year of his death, Baxter argued for the belief in 'invisible powers and spirits,' with the belief that familiars, or spirits of some kind, helped witches with the casting of spells and the raising of storms. He was, however, uncertain whether these spirits 'are neither Angels, good or bad,' or whether 'those called Fairies and Goblins are not such.' The fact that fairies were often believed to be familiars of witches shows the survival of Pagan beliefs in later periods.

 Quaker Witch with Demon Familiar (Original)

Another persistent theme within the belief of witchcraft is of the witch being transported to the Sabbat with help from their familiar. Fairy lore shows similarities to this belief with the transportation of humans to the Fairy Realm, which is suggestive of the Otherworld, with the crossing between the mortal and spirit realm with the help of a supernatural entity. Oral tradition tells us of how witches avoided detection by meeting in the astral plane to hold their Sabbats. This was aided with the use of 'flying ointments' which were smeared onto the skin and, within Fairy lore, the use of some magical dust or potion.

Witches often used the induction of trances to connect with other realms and here we can see the

connection of animal spirits as the magical partner of the witch. One ancient technique to induce a trance was to listen to the croaking of frogs. The frogs movement between land and water was possibly suggestive of a supernatural power possessed by the frog, giving it the capabilities to lead the witch to and from the spirit realm. Some folklorists of the 19^th century, such as Charles Leland, have pointed out the addition of bronze frog images that have been used by witches to aid them in the working of spells and magic, indicating a close connection between witches and frogs. Fairies and imps were also said to aid witches to travel 'in spirit' due to the belief that they lived within the spirit realm. They allowed the witch to enter into the Otherworld by locating the doors that link the physical to the spiritual, which is possibly why fairies and witches are often associated in folk beliefs throughout Europe and the UK. 

The Egyptian Dog Anubis (Original)

 

Another familiar believed to help a witch in their travels was the dog which was believed to be a guardian and keeper of the passage between the physical world and the Underworld. While the dog is often seen as a guardian of Underworld treasures, it is actually the guardian of secret knowledge associated with death and resurrection. The Egyptian dog, Anubis, is the attendant of the dead and the soul guide of the spirit land. Dogs are also associated with messenger gods and gods of destruction. The dog is often placed in the company of mother goddesses and healers. Like cats, dogs were regarded as witches' familiars and, according to J. C. Cooper, author of An Illustrated Encyclopaedia on Traditional Symbols, 'represent witches as rain-makers, hence 'raining cats and dogs.''

It was believed that a familiar could be used to trace a witch when dealing with curses and bewitchment. One witch trial held in 1665 for Rose Cullender and Amy Duny, both from Lowestoft, was concerned with the bewitchment of a child. It was noted that 'One of the sick child's blankets was hung up and anything found in it thrown into the fire. A toad obligingly appeared and exploded when put in the fire, after which the suspect was discovered and much scorched.' Medieval Christians believed toads to be 'familiars of witches, symbols of avarice and lust, and tormentors of those in Hell for these and other sins.' European folklore shows that the toad had a much darker position than the frog. The toad was regarded as an emissary of the 'Evil One' in 16^th century England, and was often burned to death as a result. In Norway, opinions were much the same, with the toad being regarded as evil, or as the representation of evil, with unfortunate frogs and toads being thrown onto the bonfire which people had danced around and jumped over on St. John's Eve. Killing toads in this manner was believed to ward off evil spirits and trolls which were active on that night. 

In parts of Scandinavia, familiars were often associated with spirits of the land and nature. Fairies, dwarves, and other supernatural beings were believed to live within the bodies of animals. With the coming of Christianity, the practice of witchcraft went underground due to the assumption that any spirit, other than an angel, had to be a demon. During the witch trials, many domestic animals were killed due to their association with heretics and witches.

Shamanistic beliefs of animal familiars is that they are not physical beings, but are thought-forms or purely spiritual entities. They are said to travel astrally, serving as magical guardians against those who may try to psychically attack the shaman.

In 1318, Pope John XXII is said to have had nine alleged witches prosecuted for assorted magical crimes, including their contact with a familiar with the help of a polished glass. The Church made use of a collection of scriptures from the Old Testament involving familiars, although it is difficult to say what these Christian interpretations of the scriptures may have meant to the ancient Hebrews. The 'Witch of Endor' from the Old Testament (Samuel 28: 3-25) was often used as the foundation of the Church's opinion on familiars. There is, however, nothing within the original language to suggest that the woman in the story was actually a witch. The original script was translated from ba'alath ob, meaning 'mistress of the Ob', to Latin mulierem habentem pythonem, meaning 'a woman possessing an oracle spirit' which was, in the King James version, translated to mean 'possessing a familiar spirit.' The Hebrew word 'ob' was used in reference to sorcerers and necromancers who conjured the dead to answer their questions. The King James Bible translated this to 'familiaris', changing the meaning of the original scripture to that of a 'household servant'. This portrayed such spirits as being the personal servants of a witch or sorcerer. Literal translations of the Bible do not discuss familiars, dealing mainly with those that practice the arts of the occult. For example, the Book of Deuteronomy 18:10-11 tells us to avoid keeping company with a 'fortuneteller, soothsayer, charmer, diviner, spell-caster, a spirit medium, or anyone who seeks oracles from the dead. The Book of Leviticu 20:27 encouraged strict punishment for anyone connected to the occult: 'A man or a woman who acts as a medium or fortuneteller shall be put to death by stoning.' The King James Bible simply replaced these original ideas with the use of the word 'witch'.

Queen Elizabeth, in 1563, declared that anyone proved to have invoked or conjured 'evill and wicked Sprites' would be punished, while King James, in 1604, expanded on this and was more specific, saying: That if any person or persons... shall use practice or exercise any Invocation or Conjuration of any evill and wicked Spirit, or shall consult convenant with entertaine employ feede or rewarde any evill or wicked Spirit (will be punished). Court officials were often keen to convict those that were a part of the occult, often coercing the accused in order to shape the evidence in such a way that made it look as though the suspect was in clear violation of the law. 

 

The Malleus Maleficarum (1486), the witch inquisitor's handbook, gives no actual instruction concerning the familiar in the questioning and trial of a witch. This book does,however, mention familiars, stating that an animal familiar 'always works with her (witch) in everything.' It also cautions inquisitors to never leave the suspect witch alone because the Devil 'will cause her to kill herself', possibly accomplishing this through a familiar. If, during these trials, so much as a fly came in through the window during the questioning of a witch, it was believed to be a familiar. 

 Matthew Hopkins, the Witch Finder General (Original)

 

The main period for the focus of witches having relationships with animal figures was between 1550 and 1650, with Matthew Hopkins, the notorious 'Witch Finder General', using the possession of a familiar as primary evidence to prove a suspect guilty of witchcraft. As a result, many were executed simply for their ownership of an animal, along with their having a strange mark, which was believed to be a nipple used to feed their familiar. The courts often exchanged the term 'familiar spirit' with words such as 'imp', 'devil', and 'demon', so it is not difficult to understand how the oldest beliefs of familiars mutated under the direction of such religious authority.

Despite the widespread belief in familiars, the Salem witch trials gives very few accounts of animal familiars. In 1692, John Bradstreet was accused of 'inciting a dog to afflict.' As a result, the dog was tried and hanged for being a witch.

The Familiar Spirit (Original)

Descriptions of familiar spirits by witches or cunning folk who had been accused of witchcraft had similar characteristics. Despite the supposed supernatural nature of these familiars, the accounts of them are surprisingly ordinary. They often had normal and affectionate names. For example, Bessie Dunlop, one cunning woman accused of witchcraft named her familiar Tom Reid. Another accused witch, the 17^th century Jane Wellis from Huntingdonshire named her familiars Grizell and Gridigut. There are accounts telling us that the familiar often arrived with its name already established, meaning that the witch was not believed to have named the familiar. Matthew Hopkins declared that 'no mortall could invent' such names, which, to him, was suggestive of something diabolical. This indication fits with the beliefs of the time, with many from this era believing that all spirits possessed names, therefore it only made sense that familiars had their own exclusive names. Familiars were described by those that had supposedly witnessed them as clearly defined, three-dimensional....forms, vivid with colour and animated with movement and sound. With their later descriptions of their smoky, undefined forms, they sound more like ghosts. 

 

They were often believed to be malevolent when working for a witch, while they were believed to be benevolent when working for cunning folk, with a witch's familiar being identified as a demon, while the latter are often classified as fairies. A familiar's main purpose is to protect and serve the witch, as they inherit their new skills. Once the relationship between witch and familiar was established, the familiar actually served a variety of purposes. Witch trials show that familiars were believed to inflict injury and to cause death to both animals and humans. They were believed to haunt and harass people, although this was limited to verbally abusing, jeering and/or threatening the victim.

In accounts taken from British cases, witches and cunning folk generally had three different ways in which a familiar would come to them. The first was that the familiar would impulsively appear in front of the individual, inside or outside of the home. For example, Joan Prentice, interrogated for witchcraft in 1589, claimed that she was 'alone in her chamber, and sitting upon a low stool preparing herself to bedward,' when her familiar first manifested before her. A cunning woman from Cornwall, Anne Jeffries, claimed that her familiar appeared when she was 'knitting in an arbour in our garden.'

The second common appearance of the familiar to a magical practitioner was that they were gifted to them, sometimes by a family member or, supposedly, by a powerful spirit. Margaret Ley from Liverpool, questioned in relation to witchcraft in 1667, claimed that her familiar was given to her by her mother when she died. Another example comes from Joan Willimot, a Leicestershire cunning woman questioned in 1618. Willimot claimed that a mysterious figure, who she referred to only as her 'master', 'willed her to open her mouth and he would blow into her a fairy which should do her good. And that she open her mouth, and that presently after blowing, there came out of her mouth a spirit which stood upon the ground in the shape and form of a woman.' Other examples include a trial that took place in Chelmsford in 1556, where the accused confessed to possessing a white-spotted cat called Satan which was passed down from witch to witch and a trial in 1582, where a 12 year old girl admitted to receiving her familiar, a cat, from her grandmother, which she later gave away to a woman named Agnes Waterhouse.

 

In some accounts, witches or cunning folk are said to have experienced difficulties in the practise of their magic until a familiar appeared to them and offered them aid. It has been noted by Emma Wilby, historian and author of Cunning Folk and Familiar Spirits, that 'their problems... were primarily rooted in the struggle for physical survival – the lack of food or money, bereavement, sickness, loss of livelihood and so on.' The familiar apparently offered them a way out of this, solving their problems by gifting them with magical powers. Some lore states that a witch received their familiar following their initiation into the Witches' sect Witches and cunning folk often made some form of pact or agreement with their familiar. This would state a length of time for which the familiar remained with the practitioner, varying between weeks and, in some cases, decades. It seems common for witches and cunning folk to summon their familiar when they were in need of assistance, although the methods varied. Joan Cunny from Essex, in 1589, claimed that she had to kneel within a circle and pray to Satan for her familiar to manifest, while, in 1653, the cunning woman, Anne Bodenham, from Wiltshire claimed that she could summon her familiars by reading books. However, in some accounts familiars are said to have had the ability to manifest even when they were unwanted or when they had not been summoned. Elizabeth Chandler, a witch from Huntingsonshire, claimed in 1646 that she had no control over her two familiars, Beelzebub and Trullibub, and is said to have prayed to God that He would 'deliver her therefrom.'

As I have noted briefly above, witches were believed to feed or nourish their familiar. It was believed that the familiar needed the nourishment of breast milk or blood, although some witches are reported to have fed their familiar on bread and milk. However, most theories of the time suggested that a familiar often craved and required blood in order to maintain a physical body, as they were believed to be spirits. While familiars were believed to take blood straight from the witch, witches were sometimes believed to provide other sources to feed the craving of their familiar. In 1324, Alice Kyteler from Kilkenny, Ireland, who was convicted as being a witch, confessed that she sacrificed red cocks to her familiar, providing it with a source of blood. Familiars, according to trial transcriptions, obtained blood by pricking the witches body and sucking out the blood. This was believed to leave a mark, which was identified as the 'witch's mark' or 'devil's mark' by witch hunters. This mark could be anything from a bruise, mole, or any skin abnormality. Most often accused were the elderly, who often had the common dark spots which we attribute to old age. These marks were believed to be insensitive to pain caused by a pin or needle pushed into them.

Outside of the witch trials, it was believed that some magicians and village healers were aided by more benevolent familiars which could diagnose illnesses and sources of bewitchment. They were also used to divine and find lost objects and treasures. During rituals, magicians would conjure these spirits, locking them into bottles, rings and stones which were sometimes sold as charms, with the magician claiming that they would ensure success in whatever the buyer sought. This was not technically illegal, with England's Witchcraft Act of 1604 specifically outlawing evil and wicked spirits.

Modern witches have their own views on familiars and no longer accept the Judeo-Christian opinion of the familiar as either accurate or valid. Familiars are now more often perceived in much the same way as some American Indians view animal guides or power animals. They are now seen as messengers that move between the mortal and spirit realm, healers and powerful allies to those with whom they form a relationship which are gifted to a witch by the Great Spirit. There are, to a modern witch, essentially three types of familiar spirit: the physical, the astral and the artificial. A physical familiar is a pet or animal to which you feel drawn. An astral familiar is considered to be an entity which exists within the spiritual realm. The artificial familiar is one that is created by the practitioner with the use of magic. In modern times, the familiar assists the witch by carrying energy for the use of healing, communicating and spell casting. They are also believed to protect both the home and personal property. Familiars can also defend a witch during astral projection and dream-work, as well as carrying information to or from the spiritual realm.

 

In conclusion, familiars have evolved and changed through the years and, in modern times, have pretty much come full circle back to the beliefs of the ancients. Familiars have been considered to be guides and helpers, aiding a witch, magician or shaman in the practice of their magic. They are said to take many forms, often as animals, with the favourites being cats. They are, however, not limited to being only animals, with many beliefs stating that the familiar is a spirit capable of living within the body of an animal or creature. They can be a readily evolved spirit or can be created through the use of magic by a witch. The evolution of Christianity saw familiars condemned, linking them to demons and the Devil and giving a primary source of evidence against an accused witch. While they have often been linked with evil, cunning folk were also said to possess benevolent familiars which could aid a person with any matter. In this case, the spirit was sometimes bottled and sold. Modern times, however, bring us back to the belief that the familiar exists to protect and aid it's witch by carrying the additional energy needed during healing, communication with other worlds and spell-casting. It is now believed that the familiar spirit connects us to the spirits of nature, much like the beliefs of our ancestors before us.

Next time: We'll take a closer look at the origins of witchcraft.

The Origins of Fairies

Now in the olden days of King Arthur,
Of whom the Britons speak with great honour,
All this wide land was land of faery.
The elf-queen, with her jolly company,
Danced oftentimes on many a green mead;
This was the old opinion, as I read.
I speak of many hundred years ago;
But now no man can see the elves, you know.

(From The Wife of Bath's Tale by Geoffrey Chaucer)

The origin of fairies is one of the most debated questions in regards to folklore with their roots being traced back in time to nature spirits, Pagan gods and goddesses, elementals and the dead, amongst other things.  The Welsh, who worshipped the Mother Goddess, referred to fairies as The Mothers and fairyland was known as The Land of Women, with fairies often depicted as women.  These 'little people' can be perceived as both good and bad, malevolent and giving, capable of assisting us and warring against us.  Symbologist, J. E. Cirlot noted that they fulfill humble tasks, yet possess extraordinary powers.  Throughout their history they have been connected with the devil and have been believed to serve witches as familiars.  They have been said to steal children, leaving changelings in their place.  They can cause illness but can also prevent it.  As Richard Kieckhefer wrote, Fairies have good and evil sides, and while they can represent primal paganism they can be said to hold the Christian faith.  But how did these beings come into existence as we perceive them today - as the tooth fairy, Tinkerbell and the fairy godmother?

The belief in fairies actually goes back to the dawn of time and is evident across the world.  Parallels in traditions can be seen in cultures as far apart as Africa, Australia and Britain and can be traced to both written and oral traditions.  From the Sanskrit gandhana - semidivine celestial musicians - to the nymphs of the Greeks, the jinni of Arabian myth to other characters of the Samoans, Arctic and other indigenous Americans.  The word fairy is derived from the Latin fata, or fate, which refers to the three women who spin and control the threads of life.  We also have the English term fays, meaning enchanted or bewitched.  The Old French word faerie has also been linked to the modern word fairy.

Those researching fairies often turn to Medieval texts, occasionally using place names as evidence of the history of fairies.  However, it is questionable that these texts and place names are describing fairies at all.
Fairy traditions within literature really began with Chaucer and Gower in the 1380s.  They are described here as a combination of the frightening and the amusing, as an already vanishing race.  Before this, the fairy didn't really exist - at least not as we know them today.  So called 'earlier accounts' tell us of supernatural beings that vary from text to text, with their characteristics or dwelling place found within their name, for example, the Barrow Revellers and the Green Children of Woolpit.  There is nothing within these texts to suggest that these beings are of the same 'species'.  The fairy tradition grew to encompass sprites, boggarts, pixies, banshees, brownies, hobgoblins, elementals, trolls, elves and many other creatures.

A 1639 depiction of Puck

In fact, there are many different concepts which were once unrelated that have, in modern times, come together to define what we now call the fairy.  Take, for example, the word elf, which Chaucer made into the equivalent of the word fairy.  The word elf can be linked to the Old English aelf, the Anglo-Saxon dryades and the Scandinavian Vanir.  In later literature, elf has been used to translate the Romance fadas.  Robert of Gloucester took a different approach, relating elves to the spiritual beings of the sky.
Elves are often found within literature but are absent from the land and, along with the fairy, you will not find them in English place names until the 18th century.  You do, however, find the puca, an occupant of barrows, wells and pits.  The puca was later linked to Puck, or Robin Goodfellow and could also be associated with the Will o'-the-Wisp and Friar Rush.  These were usually night-walking spirits which mislead men into unfortunate circumstances, playing tricks and causing mischief on the unwary.  However, in the earliest instances, a puck, pouke or pook was another name for the devil.
When looking at northern England, we find that aelf is commonly used, but puca is absent.  In this area elf is kept as the normal word for these beings in modern times, but the Romance fairy has been almost completely rejected.  This is believed to be through the influence of Scandinavian beliefs, with the aelf referring to a dwarf, or dweorg.  When looking at Scandinavian tradition in connection with the fairy, we find the words nanus and pygmaeus, which refers to a short human being.

There are many theories which have been proposed for the origin of faires:

• Unbaptized souls which are caught in limbo because they are not good enough to go to heaven, nor bad enough to go to hell.
• The Book of Enoch makes fairies fallen angels - the angels which were loyal to Satan.  The legend tells us that they were cast out of heaven with Satan but, on the journey to hell, God stopped them mid-flight, condemning them to remain where they were.  Some stopped in the air, some on the earth and some in the rivers and seas.  This belief can be found in Scotland, Ireland and Scandinavia.  A similar account to this is that when God stopped these angels, those still in heaven remained angels, those in hell became devils and those in between became fairies.
• The Irish tales of the Tuatha De Danaan refer to these beings as fairies, but they were once worshipped as gods and goddesses.
• Certain traditions tell us that fairies were demons.  This belief became popular with the start of Puritanism, with the once friendly hobgoblin becoming a wicked goblin.  Any dealings with fairies was considered a form of witchcraft in this era and was punished as such.
• Some say they are native spirits which live in all things and in all places on Earth.  These can be described as elementals, such as gnomes and sylphs, as described by Paracelsus  Some popular folklore accounts describe fairies as 'spirits of the air'.
• Others believe that fairies are simply tiny human beings.  There is evidence in parts of Europe and the British Isles that, in the Neolithic and Bronze Ages, there were populations of small-structured races.  The Irish know these races as the Tuatha De Danaan and believe them to dwell in barrows, hills and mounds.  These people are believed to have been hard-working but shy and, as the lands were invaded by bigger, stronger people, they hid in the woodland to live with nature.
• The dead have sometimes been linked with fairies, with the Irish banshee at times being described as a ghost.  The northern English Cauld Lad of Hylton tells us of a murdered boy who is described as a household sprite, like a brownie.  Another tale describes a man who was caught by the fairies and, everytime he looked at one, he saw one of his dead neighbours.
• J. M. Barrie's 1902 book The Little White Bird tells us: When the first baby laughed for the first time, his laugh broke into a million pieces, and they all went skipping about.  That was the beginning of fairies.

 There are many sources for these beliefs, with common themes being found in the Celtic nations describing a race of small people who were driven into hiding by humans.  They were seen as another race or as spirits which were believed to live in the Otherworld, or Tir na nOg.  With the coming of Christianity fairies lived on and were reputed by the Church to be 'evil beings'.

So, when looking at the origins of modern fairies, one needs to look to the time of Richard II, where a combination of poets from both England and France took their old traditions and formed the tricksters like Robin Goodfellow, the familiar spirits of cunning men and the domestic spirits like the Brownie and Hobgoblin.  This, in turn, changed the native traditions of the sidhe of Ireland and the Highlands, adding new characteristics such as small size into people's beliefs of fairies.

By the 1800s, fairy traditions had changed so much that it became difficult to discern what some beings - the Anglo-Saxon grims, scucca, thyrs and the rural Church Grims, Black Shucks and Holothrusts - were like to start with.  The modern fairy was born, masking a full understanding of the older supernatural encounters which have been included in the modern perception of these little people.

Next time I plan to tell you about some of the things which were said to please the fairies and about what was said to happen if the fairies were displeased.  I also was to include some of things believed to be sacred to the fairies how these things effect modern man in places like Ireland.
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